periods is as artistic and flexible as the Latin construction, and it requires a nice ear and an exact knowledge of syntax to construct a really good one. Besides, to be able to read Hegel and Kant, Schiller and Fichte, Schopenhauer, and Humboldt,-not to mention humorists like Richter, critics like Lessing, and word-artists like Rueckert, is certainly no mean accomplishment, and one not learned in the brief period that even our better class of colleges allow for the study.

In Cornell University at Ithaca, N. Y., as also in the Universities of Michigan, of Iowa, and of some other States, parallel courses with the old classical course have been established, and, as far as we can learn, have given good satisfaction. In these courses the Latin is generally retained, though in part as an elective study, while the place of Greek, and in part of Latin, is occupied by the modern languages. As yet, we believe, no college further West than Cornell has adopted this plan, which can only succeed when the two courses are strictly parallel and no discrimination is made in favor of either. It remains to be seen whether the leading institutions of the East will adopt the same or a similar plan. Such a plan would conciliate those interested in the time-honored course, while doing justice to those who desire for their children a different but not an inferior culture.

THE ORIGIN OF THE FIRST GERMAN UNIVERSITIES.

BY G. G. BUSH, PH.D.

[Continued from March-April No.]

In

The Position Occupied by the First German Universities. - The origin and establishing of the German Universities permit of a close comparison with the French and English, although all the difference depending upon certain national peculiarities are clearly discernible. Besides this, it is true that the English were always more fortunate than the others in securing exemption from royal authority. Germany, in educational as in political matters, it was always the business of the first in the State to lay the foundations and watch over the development of its institutions. If we consider that for centuries before the German schools were founded, most of the neighboring States were making encouraging progress in education; that in some branches of science they had made not unimportant beginnings, namely, in mathematics and physics among the Moors of Spain, in medicine and the law in Italy, in theology in France; that in England men had raised themselves to apostles of their own and other lands, and that the Magna Charta (1215) had become the basis for the national idea and a surety for the unshackled development of scientific institutions, it would seem but a natural consequence that the German Universities of the fourteenth century, building upon these foundations which had been laid by the other universities of Europe, should offer a better solution of the difficult problem of intellectual advancement. That such expectations, if entertained, were not realized is evident not only from the complaints of trustworthy contemporaries, but much more from the traditional scholastic bent in all branches of science.

It is not to be overlooked, however, that in the second half of this century the works of Roman and Grecian writers, as well as teachers and expounders of the same, had greatly increased in Europe. This was especially true of Italy, where a contest had begun which was destined in time to free the mind from the errors of a dark scholastic philosophy, and enable it to perceive a purer idea of art and science in those eternal pictures of the classic world. For Germany this was an important epoch, for in the first universities, in spite of their de

fects, there lay the greatest surety that the spirit of progress had seized upon the nation and would soon liberate it from an irksome thraldom. Though the value of these schools can hardly be overestimated, still it would not be just to measure them by any standard. of to-day. The idea of universal culture did not yet prevail, and could not so long as the schools were to any extent controlled by priestly power. Fortunately the dominion of the monks was near its end, and the cloisters where they had ruled for six hundred years were no longer to be regarded as the chief fosterers of learning.

In these early universities much time was given to disputations and the practice of sophistries, under the belief that in this way the mind could secure that discipline that would enable it to cope successfully with the subtle questions of dialectics, and to this are we indebted for the saying of Leibnitz: in stercore scholasticæ barbareii delituit aurum. But they have other and higher claims to consideration than this. At a time when printed books were unknown, and written ones by their rareness and expensiveness could be only the property of a few, the universities became the favored receptacles of all the attainable treasures of knowledge. As the period of study extended through many years, they exerted also a peculiarly salutary influence in bringing together in familiar intercourse all classes of men. From the difficulty of obtaining knowledge, princes and even crowned heads were found in the lecture-halls, and took part in the customary disputations, academical processions, and festivals. Thus was given to the highest and lowest the best that science could then offer. Besides, there was in Germany a purely personal participation of the noble founders in their own creations. To this personal interest was due the improvement in the methods of teaching, increase of teachers and provision for their support, extension of privileges, and assistance in putting an end to prevailing abuses. During the fourteenth century the Pope began to assume a new and more intimate relation to the universities. Before this time it had not been thought necessary to secure the papal sanction in order to found a university, or even that department of it devoted to theo logical study, except when this had been established later than the other departments, as happened at Bologna and Padua. But as the number of universities increased a spirit of rivalry was awakened, and the question of rank and of the validity of the academical degrees conferred became of vital interest. Hence the papal con

1 In Paris, where the school of theology sprang from the older parish school, the bull of confirmation was neither sought nor obtained.

firmation was sought because, when obtained, the rights of the university were acknowledged in all the lands of the Romish church. This custom of seeking papal favor was continued in Germany until about the opening of the Reformation, when in its place royal letters were given which vouchsafed similar advantages.

Through the help of pope and prince, it was further sought to make the universities independent and privileged corporations, so that in case of foreign assaults they might be able to offer successful resistance. Thus at an early period there sprang up between them and the German cities a strong bond of union, rendered the more stable because formed on the sure basis of mutual advantage. The coming together of large bodies of students advanced materially the welfare of the cities where the universities were located, and gave thein increased consideration in their far-reaching alliances with other cities. This compact between the city corporations and the Univerties was of great importance in so defenceless and quarrelsome an age, especially as their liberties were continually threatened by a powerful union which had been formed by the clergy and the knights. Hence it became possible for the universities to approach more nearly to the original conception of the founders, namely, that they should be not simply State establishments but world-institutes, founded upon the idea of science.

2 The papal Bull was always the same. The pope, as head of the faithful, declared himself bound to do all in his power to further the prosperity of the sciences by means of which God's honor is extended, genuine faith increased, the prosperity of the church, and right, justice, and human blessedness promoted. Therefore he was pleased both to grant the request to found a university, and to confer upon it all the rights of other existing universities. Especially did he give to the four faculties the right to teach, and, according to custom, to promote the pupils step by step to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Licentiates, and Masters of Arts, and that those so promoted should have everywhere authority to teach. It was at first held that only the pope could give this authority, because he stood at the head of Christendom. It is possible, therefore, that this may explain the name studium generale, which was always given to the earlier universities, not because the institution comprised all four faculties, but because the graduates of a university sanctioned by the pope were recognized as such by all the universities of Europe, and had everywhere authority to teach.

It was customary in the papal Bull to praise the city where the university was to be located, for example, the purity of the air, the abundance of the necessaries of life, the fruitfulness of the surrounding country, the attractiveness and convenience of the dwellings, and sometimes (as in the case of Leipsic) the morality of the people.*

The question has arisen whether the German universities also needed to be confirmed by the emperor, who was likewise Roman king. It seems that the University of Prague received such confirmation from Charles IV. as Roman king the year after its founding; but from that time until 1456,—that is, for more than a hundred years,—the royal confirmation was not sought.*

*Von Raumer: "Die Deutschen Universitäten."

As, therefore, about the middle of the fourteenth century, on account of the increased interference of the pope with the constitution of the empire, a separation of royal and papal administration took place in Germany; as the rights of the State came in conflict with those claimed for the church; as the appeals for the improvement of the clergy and the introduction of many needed reforms became more and more urgent, the universities, believing it to be in accordance with their prerogatives, took an ever more important political position, opposed the empty pretensions of the nobility, supported the interests of the ruler against pope and clergy, and, in spite of the newness of their influence in Germany, became the strongest bulwarks against ecclesiastical and worldly obscurantism.

Founding of Universities at Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, Cologne, and Erfurt. With a single exception the German universities of the fourteenth century were founded in the latter half of this period. As they sprang up in rapid succession, and were all more or less modeled after the University of Paris, it will not be thought strange if we find in their external constitution a remarkable resemblance. From this it is evident that we cannot treat of them in chronological or analytical order, but must choose a synchronistic, and, with reference to characteristic deviations, a synthetical method of treatment.

In time past, on account of the rivalry existing between the university and the desire to claim precedence, the question of their origin has been beset with many difficulties. It has been claimed, for example, that a university existed in Prague even before the introduction of Christianity, and in Vienna as early as 1237, or, at the latest, 1296. Admitting that schools had been established, it is altogether probable that they were not bound together by laws and statutes, had no divisions into faculties, nor power to confer the academical degree, and were in general of too elementary a character to exempt the more assiduous students from the necessity of seeking their culture in other lands. The fact that the papal sanction was often obtained years after the founding of a university has doubtless in some instances given rise to a conflict of authorities. Still there can be little doubt that the original sources of information are sufficient, not only to remove the chronological difficulty, but in most cases preserve the historical and valuable epochs and names which, through their great merit, deserve to enjoy the special regard of future times.

Such a name for the founding of the University of Prague is that of Charles IV., king of Bohemia, who was educated at Paris, and there learned to value the importance of a more thorough education.