whole, speaking in the capacity of a civil legislator solicitous for the preservation of the people in the land which they were to inherit. Who, now, would, under such circumstances, expect the inculcation of celestial rewards or infernal punishments? "These," says a profound scholar,1" apply only to the individual; for he alone, and not the nation, as a whole, inherits immortality." Besides, future rewards and punishments are but rarely adapted to influence men's conduct in this world. Even at the present day, when the doctrine of immortality is openly confessed by all sects, both Jewish and Christian, the preacher, according to the testi mony of Whately himself, finds it difficult to draw the minds of his hearers from the things of this life, and fix their attention on the retribution awaiting them beyond the grave. The people of our day still continue to be affected much more by wars, epidemics, and even financial crises. Human nature ever remains the same; and so the prospect of present weal or woe, something within the grasp of every one, has always proved a far safer means of securing the fidelity and obedience of the individual, than the greatest amount of future happiness or misery. Indeed,' when we consider that most of the ancient lawgivers strangely intermingled future with present rewards and punishments,3 we cannot but admire the wisdom and energy of the Hebrew legislator, in rigidly omitting any allusion to future retribution, and trusting, by the aid of Providence, to secure universal obedience to the laws by such motives as would conduce to the welfare of the nation and the patriotism of the individual.4

1 Saalschütz, das Mosaische Recht, chap. I.

2 Essays (first series), pp. 73, 74, and Future State, pp. 18, 19. The legislator of the Persians, for example, disposed of the punishments in hell with the same liberty and want of moderation with which he distributes corporal punishment in this life. Thus the Zend-Avesta threatens imprisonment of three hundred thousand years in the infernal regions for even insignificant crimes. -See Saalschütz, ibid.

4 The existence of the doctrine of immortality among the ancient Hebrews having been thus established, it will, no doubt, be interesting to learn the several phases which this doctrine has assumed among the Jews down to the present day. This we may be able to show in some future Article.

ARTICLE V.

COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY: OR, THE PHONETIC SYSTEM OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.

BY BENJAMIN W. DWIGHT, CLINTON, N. Y.

[Completed from Vol. XVII., from page 302].

2d. The phonetic force of the different Greek letters, in alphabetic order; or a synoptical view of the capacities of the Greek letters, for a variable manifestation of different equivalent sounds in the Sanskrit.

A. This represents the Sanskrit a, illustrations of which will be, of course, unnecessary.

It is sometimes euphonic, and so not a radical part of the stem of a word; as in domaipo, to gasp, compared with σπαίρω. In ἀστέροπη (= ἀστηρ + ὄψ) lightning, (and also ȧoτρаTý) compared with στéρоη, we have, on the contrary, a full and contracted form of the same word, which might readily be mistaken, but for etymological reasons, for an instance of a euphonic. Like the Sanskrit a, the Greek a shaded off in kindred or derived forms, in different dialects, into almost all the other vowels : as e, Ionic ἔρσην for ἄρσην ; η, Epic θώρηξ and σοφίη for θώραξ and σοφία ; o, Folic στρατός for στρατός.

In the Doric dialect, a was almost as great a favorite in all consonantal forms, as in Sanskrit; and it abounded greatly also in the forms of the Æolic dialect. In the different dialectic forms of the genitive of vaûs, a ship (Sansk. navas, Lat. navis), as Doric vaós, Ionic vnós and veós and Attic ves, we see the radical vowel a represented by a variety of kindred vowels.

B. This is equivalent to the Sanskrit b, bh, g, j, and v. (b) Specimens of this kind will be unnecessary.

(bh) bhar to carry, Baoтáw.

This aspirate is, however, most commonly represented by in Greek.

(g) go, a cow, Boûs; gâ, to go, Baívw (pure stem ẞa); gurus heavy, βαρύς.

(j) jyâ, a bowstring, Biós, a bow.

(v) vrish, to irrigate, ẞpéxw.

Before p, it was substi ordinary aspirate, as in

The sound of the Greek B was softer than ours, more like indeed, as in the Modern Greek, our v than b; or, as in Spanish, medial between the two. tuted in the Æolic dialect for the βρόδον for ῥόδον and βράκος for ῥάκος. It was also epenthetically inserted before p after μ, as in μεσημβρία, for μέση ἥμερα ; and ἄμβροτος for ἄμροτος.

It was interchangeable in the different dialects, with the following consonants:

(1); as in Baтeîv for Taтeîv, to tread. Before 7 in verbal forms, according to the law of the harmonization of mutes. in Greek (smooth with smooth, middle with middle, etc.), 8 is regularly changed to π, as in τέτριπται for τέτριβται. Compare the change of b to p in Latin before s and t, as in scripsi and scriptum from scribo.

(2) φ; as in βρίγες and βρύγοι compared with φρύγες. Cf. Lat. fremo and βρέμω; and balaena, a whale and φάλαινα.

(3) y; as yλnxwv for ẞxnxwv, penny-royal. Compare, also, Bapus and Lat. gravis; and also Báλavos an acorn and glans. (4) 8; as ỏdeλós (Doric) for oßeλós, an obelisk.

(5) μ; as βροτός for βροτός by metathesis for μορτός, Sansk. marttas (mri, to die) Lat. mortuus (morior). Cf. uúpμŋ§ an ant, and Lat. formica; and also popμó a bugbear, and formido, fear.

T. This corresponds with the Sanskrit g, h, j, k (and ch), gh, and ç.

(g) gaûs, the earth (stem gâ), y, Archaic yaîa; sthag, to cover, σTéyw, Lat. tego.

Labials often represent gutturals in a cognate language, as a degenerate form of them, as in Eol. Tís, who; Attic ris; Sansk. kis; Lat. quis.

(h) hanus, the jaw, yévus, Lat. gena.

(j) jânu, the knee, yóvu, Lat. genu; jan to beget, yevváw ; aj to drive, ayw; yaj to sacrifice, to worship, ayios.

(k) kan (cf. also chad and chand of same sense) to shine, γανάω.

(gh) ghas, to eat, yávelov, an eating-house.

(c) paç, to bind, πývʊμɩ, stem waɣ.

In the Greek itself it was interchangeable with B, E, K, X. Thus for β, compare βλήχων and γλήχων ; for δ, γῆ and δα (Doric); for κ, γνάπτω aud κνάπτω ; and for λ, μόγις and μόλις.

4. This is equivalent to the Sanskrit d, dh, j, and g. (d) dakshas, right (as right-handed) Seğiós; dvau, two, dúw; dam, to subdue, daμáw.

(dh) dhâman, a house, dóμos.

(i) jiv, to live, Síaira.

(g) guh, to conceal, dúw and dúvw, to get into, to put on. Cf. Lat. induo and exuo.

It is interchangeable in various dialects with different letters in Greek.

(1) In the Æolic dialect with β, as σάμβαλον for σάνδα

λον.

(2) In the Doric, with y, as yaîa and y, Doric dâ and also γλ. Cf. also δνόφος as a parallel form of γνόφος. Το yâ. Δημήτηρ, Ceres, is formed from Γη + μήτηρ.

(3) In the Ionic, with, as in Zeus and 4eus; with x, as δαίω and καίω; and with σ, as 'δμή and ὀσμή.

(4) In the Attic dialect, with 7, as in dáns and τáπηs. It became also euphonically in the Attic in verbal forms σ, before - and S, as in ἐψεύσθην for ἐψεύδην, and ἔρεισται for epeidτai; as in Latin we find fissum for fidtum.

E. This represents the Sanskrit a, e, i, v.

(a.) api, to or towards, èπí; ahis, a snake, exis; jarat an old man, γέρων (stem γεροντ) ; ana, in, ev and εἰς for ἐντς, (cf. Lat. in and with Sansk. antar among Lat. inter). (e) êna, one, eis for evs.

(i) pippali, pepper, πéπeρɩ (Lat. piper).

(v) varman, an arming, epupa (Lat. arma); vam, to vomit, ἐμέω. Cf. vas to wish and ἕκων for Fέκων, Lat. invitus.

E is sometimes euphonic, as in èλaxús small, Sansk. laghus, light. In éxaтóv one hundred, the initial é is not euphonic, but is an abbreviation of the numeral eis for evs one (= ev+KaTÓV. Cf. Lat. centum, Sansk. çatam). In the Eolic dialect, & was exchanged for ŋ, as κĥvos for κeîvos and κῆ for ἐκεῖ.

2. Its equivalents in Sanskrit are d and y.

(d) dam, to conquer (Lat. domo. Cf. dominus and damnum) nuía, loss, damage. Cf. Sapáw to subdue.

(y) yu and yuj, to bind, or join together, Čevyvvμı; yava, barley, Céa for Cé Fa.

Z does not represent in Greek the combination, as might be supposed, of ds, τs, and Is, etymologically, but of dɩ and γι. Thus σχίζω is for σχέδιο (stem σχιδ); στίζω fut. στίξω (stem σT) is for σriyw; (cf. Lat. instigo, Germ. stechen, Eng. stick); and μeitwv is for péyiwv. It is also sometimes equivalent when initial to the simple Sanskrit y; as in ʊyóv (Lat. jugum) a yoke, and yuga equal; and Çeúyvuμ to join (Lat.jungo) Sansk. yuj to bind. In a few cases represents a contraction of σδ (not os), as 'Αθήναζε for 'Αθήνασδε. Dionysius, who yet himself represents as being pronounced as ds, says that it arose from ad. In the Doric dialect, it was indeed so written, so that Zeus was in Doric Zoeus; but the analysis of its origin, as representing an earlier form & or y, is alike its true historical and phonetic analysis. Z early sank in sound into soft s, and was by Lucian substituted in some words for it, as in μικρός for σμικ ρός and Ζμύρνα for Σμύρνα.

Z was interchanged in Greek, when initial, by the Dorians, with 8, and, when medial, by the Tarentine Greeks with oo; as, with 8, in the Doric forms Suyóv and Swμós for ζυγόν and ζωμός; and with σσ in the Tarentine form λακτίσε σω for λακτίζω.

H. This is equivalent to the Sanskrit a. Thus the Sansk. sâmi half, Lat. semi, is in Greek -; in which form the n represents the Sansk. long â, and the accompanying aspi