for the existence of this oceanic circulation, it is probable that a large part of the now habitable earth would be rendered unfit for habitation.Compare bleak Labrador and wellpopulated Europe in same latitudes.

In some cases currents in the ocean are an aid to navigation. Where a cold and a warm current are side by side, as in the case near Newfound land, fogs are abundant, and this interferes with navigation (Tarr, p. 190).

Isothermal Lines (isos, equal; thermas, heat).-Latitude is no true indication of temperature, for it is but one of several factors which tend to determine climate. Owing to the disturbing influences of the other factors, this decrease is not regular, and hence the lines of equal temperature, or the isotherms, are not parallel to the lines of latitudes, but often diverge very widely from them.

The striking bends of the isotherms are due to the combined agency of the winds, the great currents of the ocean, the moisture in the air, and the height above sea-level. The isotherm of New York, soon after leaving the Atlantic coast, is bent northward by the warm Gulf Stream, and comes out on the other side of the Atlantic, nearly 900 miles farther north than New York. Again, the isotherms of the California coast are bent sharply southward by the chilling ocean currents near that coast (Maury's Manual Geog., p. 20).

The best graphic way to show the distribution of temperature over the earth, is by means of isothermal

charts. The chart may show these lines for the day, or for the month, or for the year. If for the year, they represent the average of all temperatures during that time; or if for the month, the same average for day and night throughout the month. The isotherm is passed through all places having the same temperatures for the period studied.-Consult Weather Bureau charts. Study and copy charts in Tarr's Phys. Geog., pp. 50-60.

In the southern hemisphere the isotherms are nearly parallel to the latitude circles; this is because the oceans in this hemisphere are so little interrupted by land.

In the northern hemisphere the isotherms are much more irregular, because the oceans are here interrupted by broad continents, and the temperatures on lands and seas are often unlike in the same latitude (Davis, Elem. Phys. Geog., p. 35).

Average temperature 80° to 82°, called tropical.

Average temperature 70° to 80°, called subtropical.

Average temperature 50° to 70°, called temperate.

Average temperature 32° to 50°, called cool.

Temperature below 32°, called

arctic.

Compare the average temperature along the Atlantic coast with the temperature in the same latitude on the Pacific coast. Trace the isotherm of 50° across the continent, and explain the changes in direction. As a rule, the lines bend northward over the oceans and southward over the land.

That the subject of athletics forms an appropriate study for pedagogs needs no defense; on the contrary, is safe to say that no part of our educational work has received more serious attention and heated discussion during the past five years than has this subject. As the smoke of conflict clears away the function of athletics in school work becomes defined with increasing clearness.

Athletics will do certain things for a school and do them well, but we cannot expect from athletics everything that has been claimed for them. We cannot expect them to cause good posture in the same way or degree that our formal gymnastics provide, nor can we expect from them the kind of educational result we get best from formal work. Inhibition, the basic principle of our human relations, is taught by athletics in a very real way, relating itself closely to the practice of life, but the clearly defined method of our scientific response work trains for the habit of inhibition in a definite fashion peculiar to itself. Athletics in their present form are not appropriate for the undeveloped children of the lower primary grades, and but few of the accepted athletics for boys are appropriate for girls.

We do expect, however, that athletics in themselves will provide the kind of exercise that gives large returns in physiological results. They are naturally fitted to the boy and his physical needs.

One of the reasons that athletics are so valuable is that they are the kinds of things that our physical and mental structures are developed for and delight in. In our evolution it was necessary to do the things which we now do as athletics, running, jumping, throwing and the like. Function has made structure. We have now the structure and must function according to it or die.

Athletics are necessary to physical and mental health and development in some form from birth through middle age, and even though essential all may neglect them, because a great share of success of the individual in this age may be won without their use, despite the fact that the next generation suffers sorely. The only individuals in our civilization that are under the compulsion of State to do certain things are the children of the school age. These, and only these, the State compels to rational and appropriate exercise as a part of its duty to itself and to them. The adolescent and adult must care for themselves, and the prompting of their instinct is to carry on the habits of play and exercise which we may and should inculcate. The city is now beginning to provide the means for the indulgence of this weakening but vital instinct. Public swimming pools, parks and gymnasia are made and more are planned, and the future promises to be brighter than the past.

Athletics help to provide a sound physical basis for other school work, develop inhibition, discipline and loyalty, and are to be wholly commended and carefully regulated.

In passing, it may be well to mention one important feature of our local situation. Athletics are fostered by the Public Schools Athletic League, specifically approved in great degree by the educational authorities, but are carried on in the schools by the men who are interested in it. This is one of the finest things that a man can do. I have been deeply impressed with the amount of personal sacrifice and labor that a man will spend developing an athletic spirit in a school and sending out athletic teams to represent it. Honor to them all for their splendid constructive work!

Fortunately the character of their service is becoming recognized. A principal in this day of large schools is mainly an administrator, and it is being realized that the abilities which prompt the organization of an athletic association and carry it through a successful season are intimately related, or are in fact identical with abilities necessary in a successful principal. They are certainly better evidence of fundamental usefulness than a certificate of attendance upon technical courses in pedagogy, however necessary and valuable the latter may be.

Considered from a certain standpoint, there are two forms of athletics -the intensive and the extensive. The one is representative, the other democratic.

Our usual form of athletics proceeds somewhat as follows: A call is made for candidates for a team. Many are stimulated by a sense of ability or a feeling of loyalty to respond and become candidates. These candidates are trained for a while in

the game, till a "squad" is formed of a first, second and, perhaps, a third team, or in the case of athletics, two or three boys for each event. All others rejoin the mass of boys who did not even try. The result is that a small class of boys is selected to represent the school. These receive the whole attention of the coach and receive all of the athletic training of the whole school. This is the intensive form of athletics, and it follows the law of elimination of the unfit until a representative team is presented, to which the honor and glory of the school is intrusted. From the necessity of the case, these boys, selected for their athletic fitness, are already healthy, well and strong, and the very ones who need the least attention to their health and strength.

The defects of this system are obvious. There is a great deal of training of the most fit, to the neglect of the envious unfit, whose exercise is mostly of the vicarious nature. Moreover, be the rules ever so carefully drawn, there is always a severe pressure brought to bear upon the honesty of the coach and individual athletes. And when we consider that the running for his school means more to a boy than his very life, we have only to wonder that loyalty to the spirit of fair play can be stronger than loyalty (as he may interpret it under pressure) to his school.

To overcome the limitations of the intensive form of athletics, several devices have been employed. One that has become popular is the increase of the number of boys in a single event. The relay team is a case in point. Here four boys run where only one ran before. A relay team is formed to carry a message from New York City to Chicago or to cover a Marathon course. The logical extension of

this is to increase the size of the relay teams to eight or ten, and has already been tried with success. There is no reason why there should not be relay teams of forty boys, five from each grammar grade, representing the school, except that it increases the task of the coach in proportion.

Another method is to increase the number of the teams, and already many of our schools support "second" and "midget" teams. Another plan is to organize class teams and hold a round-robin series lasting throughout a season. This is nearly an ideal method, and has met with unqualified success, notably at the Commercial High School in Brooklyn in socker football, and the High School of Commerce in all-around athletics. It has been begun in several elementary schools with basketball and indoor baseball.

The final form of extensive athletics must provide a means of stimulating all to take part. The "class athletics" recently officially adopted by the Board of Superintendents, as an optional physical training procedure, meets the requirements of the whole situation. Two periods a week, fifteen minutes each, or one of twenty minutes may be spent in the practice of this form of exercise, if it is found that the more formal work is successfully accomplished in the remaining three periods.

In this work each boy's effort counts toward the record of the class. Each boy practices, strives and trains, obeying all disagreeable hygienic laws, so that the average record of his class will increase and be better than some other or all other classes. Class records are made on the standing broad jump, "chinning" or the pull-up, and a short dash appropriate for the grade. These records may be sent to the Pub

lic Schools Athletic League at appropriate times, where the best three in each borough are selected, tested over again and the borough championship awarded. There are trophies for each grade and for each of the three events. This form of athletics keeps all grammar boys constantly interested and constantly training and striving for their school. It develops strong bodies, alert minds and loyalty to the group. What more can we ask for our citizens of the new New York?

Lest my statement of the advantages of class athletics as the ideal extensive form of athletics be construed as a stricture upon the intensive form, let us review the advantages of the latter, which I strongly favor.

Athletics are primarily individual, and the education of a community into an athletic milieu must begin with Before 1900, athaccepted forms.

letics were not the usual features of a school boy life, as they are now, and at that time only the most national forms could flourish. If a school had one team, with even a precarious existence, it was a novelty, and a handful of athletes was enough for a school. Now, all clamor for athletics, and it is a hopeful sign of the times. that all are to be supplied, and I look forward to the time when every boy, not an outright invalid, will engage in the athletic activities that are appropriate to his physical structure and to his mental development.

The intensive form develops a team of the few to represent the school, it is true, but it develops in the school a spirit of loyalty to the whole which is the training ground of civic and national loyalty. The boy will shout, work and, if need be, die for his school. The boy grown to the man I will do the same.

Waterloo was undoubtedly won upon the playing fields of public schools of England, and as surely and timely are the battles of our republic being won on the gymnasia of our public schools and the athletic fields of the Board of Education.

Will the boy, Italian or Russian Jew, ever learn loyalty and patriotism from a book as surely as he will fighting a battle for his school?

There is a horizon even broader than patriotism. Our civilization demands mental efficiency and tolerates the body only as it must. As a con

sequence, civilization pays the price for its own its own continuance-depends upon the successive generations of the most fit. Should we ever arrive at the time, and the signs are written, when the ideals of civilization depart wholly from organic vigor and become effete, our artificial structure will fall as did others of its kind.

To us is given the task of maintaining intact the cultural heritage of fathers upon a hale and strong basis of the cruder bodily virtues of strife, courage, strength and vigor. For this, athletics, and athletics for all.

Now that we have survived the "Earthquake" of Vertical Writing (extreme form) and the "Cyclone" of Movement (extreme movement), we are better able to judge knowingly of their respective merits and to perceive the vast difference between the teaching of Form and of Movement, or the "What" and "How" in Writing.

"Writing," the art of composing and arranging certain written characters, consists of "Executed Forms" and is the "What," while "Penmanship," the art of using the pen, is the "Mode of Execution" or "How" in writing.

There can be no question as to the importance of each; but there is a most important question as to how and when to teach each of them. Attempts are being made to teach them. both at once, while some teachers argue that as form is the result of motion the "How" should be first taught. Still others think that they

should be taught to know "What" to make before taking time to fix a certain Habit of "How" and working blindly at it.

Our "Course of Study" says "Arm Movement," and has done so for years, but inasmuch as no provision had been made for the training of teachers in this "Arm Movement," in the Training Schools, or elsewhere, and as no particular attention to methods of teaching the subject was demanded in passing the examinations for teachers' license, it is not surprising that it has been neglected when so much else is absolutely required and necessary both in teaching and passing the examinations.

Attempts to call attention to this shortcoming from time to time have had no immediate effect, and until the present time, since the advent of MacLauren in 1860, no plan had produced action or interest in the "How." Even now it is very doubtful if movement