centre of the Empyrean, and poised about the centre of Space (as suggested in diagram 3), and what its relative size, cannot be determined.1 The Heaven World O Chaos Man is thus in a middle position, the Good above, the Evil below, and he is to be connected with both. For the use of the good angels a golden stairway is let down from Heaven, and for the use of the evil ones a broad path, or bridge, is made by Sin and Death through the Deep in the track taken by Satan on his journey of exploration (II. 1024, &c.). The golden stair can be drawn up as if to secure Heaven against unwished-for visitants, but the lower bridge is never closed. The two roads meet at the same point, where there is an opening affording access to the interior of the World. -e Chaos Hell Fig. 3. IV. Let us now look at this new World. It was created primarily for a new race of beings, Man, and his abode, the Earth, is appropriately made its centre. It is a complicated system of ten hollow spheres or shells fitted one within another, and around the solid Earth. Each sphere has a motion of its own, imparted, in the first place, by the outside shell, called the Primum Mobile, or First Moved-how it is moved we are not told. Of these spheres only two are material-the Primum Mobile or hard, external casing, and the next within it, the Crystalline Sphere, which consists of a clear, watery fluid. The first is designed as a protection to the whole system, the latter to moderate the extremes of heat and cold which may permeate the outer framework. The 1 Professor Masson makes the radius of the World one-third of a to d, and consequently the World stretches from a to e. This seems to agree with I. 73, 74, but not with II. 1052-3, in which the World appears to Satan in the distance as a star of smallest magnitude", nor with III. 427-8, where the World "from the wall of Heaven, though distant far, some small reflection gains". The force of the passage (I. 73-4) depends on the meaning of the term "pole", which is rather vague, and in VII. 23, seems applicable to the point a. 2 Cp. VIII. 98-9. remaining eight are, or may be regarded as, mere divisions of space, in which the several planets or orbs have their respective orbits. It was in all probability to account for the different motions of the several planets that the separate revolutions of the spheres were assumed. The seven planetary spheres, beginning with that nearest the Earth, are: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The eighth sphere contains those stars which occupy a fixed position with regard to one another, and it is therefore called the Fixed or the Firmament: it revolves once daily, carrying all its stars round with it. The Earth is supposed to be stationary. This theory of the World was gradually given up in favour of the simpler one of Copernicus (1473-1543), which was advocated by Galileo and others, and finally established by Kepler and Newton. According to this the Sun is the centre1 1 More correctly, the sun is not at the centre, but at the common focus of the ellipses of the paths described by the planets. of our universe, and is almost stationary; the Earth and the other planets revolve about it, whilst some of these planets, e.g. the Earth, have satellites of their own; and finally the 'fixed stars' are outside the solar universe altogether. Milton was well acquainted with the Copernican system, and may quite possibly have accepted it; but in a poem concerned with topics so far beyond the pale of experience and knowledge, and so full of ancient and mediæval ideas, beliefs, and fancies, the old theory, however erroneous, was not only fitting, but necessary; for it is involved in very many of the thoughts borrowed by Milton, as it is in some of our phrases at this day;1 in Milton's time it was still generally accepted, and it was undoubtedly more poetical than the new system.2 THE METRE. (1) The poem is written in blank verse, or unrimed iambic pentameters; that is, the typical line consists of ten syllables, divided into five feet of two syllables each, the stress falling on the second syllable, e.g.— With gems' and gold' | en lus' | tre rich' | emblazed. (2) A repetition of such typical lines, even if possible, would be extremely wearisome; and we find the lines modified in various ways: (a) by an additional syllable at the end of the line; e.g. I. 38; 1 Professor Masson instances such phrases as 'out of one's sphere'. 2 Consider e.g. the quaint fancy of the music of the spheres as expressed by Shakespeare (Merchant of Venice, V. i. 60) "There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st But in his motion like an angel sings, Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubins; Such harmony is in immortal souls; But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it." (b) by additional syllables not at the end; such syllables are usually elided: e.g.— ༢ Above' the Aon' | ian mount', | while it' | pursues'. His tem' | ple right' | against' ; the tem' | ple of God'. The e of passive participles in -ed and -en is usually elided. (c) one or even two of the five stresses may be dropped: e.g. A dun' | geon hor' | rible on all' | sides round', where the stress fails in the third foot owing to the syllable -ble. (d) or the stress may be inverted: e.g.— Here for his en' | vy; will' | not drive' | us' hence. A mind' not to be changed' | by place' or time'. (The inverted feet are trochees.) (3) The breaks in the sentences do not come at the ends of the lines only; but the construction is carried on without regard to the division into lines, and we get longer or shorter groups just as the case requires. Thus, the end of a sentence may occur in any part of the line or at the end. This gives ten possible positions, but there are frequently two breaks in one line. The result is such variety in the groupings, and such a fitness between thought and language, that there is never even an approach to monotony. PARADISE LOST. BOOK I. The subject of the poem, Man's fall. Invocation of the Holy Spirit's aid. OF Man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the World, and all our woe, Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed 5 ΙΟ Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flow'd That with no middle flight intends to soar 15 20 |