medium size, and the stone boat for larger ones. (See Figures 48, 49 and 50.)

Machinery and tools.-A two-wheeled cart, made very strong and with wheels of large diameter, is a useful implement for swinging up heavy stones and transporting them. The requirements in the way of tools, etc., for removing and breaking large stones are: Shovels, heavy chains to place about the stones, drills and wedges for making holes and giant powder or other explosives. Drawing the stones out of their settings with a team, like skidding logs, is a matter requiring skill, and also a steady, strong team. Using dynamite laid on the stone or some explosive placed in a drill hole and held down with tamped clay, while a comparatively simple matter, must be learned by experience, else too much expense will be entailed for materials, and there will be too muth danger of accidents from the improper handling of the explosives.

Since stones are often useful, they may be drawn to places where they are most available for use. If in large numbers and no immediate use is to be made of them, they should be compactly piled where they will occupy little valuable land, where they will not be unsightly, and in such a manner that they will not harbor weeds.

Uses for field stones.-A limited number of field stones may be found so useful on the farm where rocks from quarries are expensive to secure, that the cost of removing them is small compared with their value. Material for foundations to buildings and for cellar walls may thus be secured more cheaply than from a distant stone quarry. Bridge abutments, stone arches for smaller bridges and culverts, retaining walls, roads and paths, may be made of stones thus collected; and with foresight these may be drawn directly from the field to the points at which they are needed. Stones thus secured

are useful for the foundation of roads and walks. Ditches along the roadside, farm ditches through land which readily washes, may be paved cheaply with field stones; and rather than leave the stones in unsightly piles along the roadside or throughout the field, it sometimes pays to pile them up into fences. The cost of wire fences is now so low, however, that the labor of piling up stone fences and of repairing them will not, as a rule, pay in the end.

Removing trees, shrubs and roots from peaty land.Many swamps are covered with trees. Sometimes a

Figure 50. Stone boat.

thick growth, as of tamarack or spruce, is formed, which is valuable for posts, fuel or other

purposes. Other swamps have scattering trees of small size, and in other cases no trees are to be seen, but underneath the upper layers of peat are encountered stumps, roots and logs which greatly impede the work of making drains and of cultivation. Where fire can be safely used to consume the upper

3 to 6 inches of peat, the stumps and roots of standing or decayed

Figure 51. Hook. A kind of large hoe used peat, in subduing virgin moorlands.

trees thus uncovered in Western Germany to upturn the coarse surface may then be easily removed. The roots of trees growing in peat do not penetrate deeply, but spread out almost horizontally. By burning off the covering of moss and peat, the roots and stumps are also burned, or are so exposed that they may be freely lifted out of the peat and removed. Any stumps, roots or stems of trees of a former time which have been covered by the upbuilding of the peat and which impede the plow may usually be drawn out by hand or team. In case burning is not practicable, as where the surface peat cannot be gotten sufficiently dry,

or where it is so dry that there is danger of burning pit holes in the peat, much force and labor are required to pull the trees and stumps out and pile them up for burning. Some care is necessary to avoid burning large piles of wood on peaty soils, as the fire may make the peat beneath so hot and dry that a pit will be burned out, and a fire thus started can often only be extinguished with great difficulty. In peaty lands which are used for pastures, and in some which are used for meadows, the slow process of decay may be allowed to remove stumps and roots. When the peat is drained, and air takes the place of part of the water among the particles of peat, decay goes on rapidly. This is in a large part due to the presence of the myriads of bacteria which thrive in the drier soil and help to decompose the organic

matter.

Burning the surface peat as a means of getting rid of the coarse, unrotted, recently formed moss and other forms of plant life, and of securing a finer soil in the better decayed deeper and older peat in which to plant crops, is important. The upper 6 to 10 inches of newly drained peaty land is usually a loose mass of moss and may in some instances be burned off.

Solidifying by pasturing.-Where it is impracticable to burn off or to otherwise remove the surface moss before sowing tame grass seed, it is difficult to secure a stand of grasses or clovers. In many instances where one is in no haste to subdue fully the peaty land, an advantage is gained by having animals pasture on it, and thus compact the peat by tramping. Animals may be encouraged to roam over the fields by sowing such pasture plants as red-top, timothy and alsike clover. This compacting prevents the development of sphagnum or other mosses and forms the surface into a soil-like condition, thus giving the grasses a better chance to thrive.

The packing by the feet of animals often results in the formation of hummocks which make mowing for hay next to impossible, and breaking somewhat difficult. Where the land is to remain for some time in pasture, these objections have less force.

Plowing and pulverizing peaty lands is ordinarily done with the plows, pulverizers and harrows in ordinary use on the farm. Plows might be made that would be especially adapted to breaking such land. The share

should be broad, so that a wide furrow can be made, and it should be kept sharp so as to cut off roots. The coulter should be adapted to cut loose the edge of the soft, mossy furrow-slice and to sever all but the largest roots. Where it is desired to use moorlands for pastures or meadows, the complete destruction of wild plants and the making of a smooth seed bed is wise, if not too expensive. Peaty lands once subdued are cultivated with much the same plows and implements used in solid soils.

Growing crops on peaty lands.-In many cases the moorland may be broken, sown to flax or oats, and seeded

down to tame grasses, to remain permanently; or the grass sod may be plowed under after several years, one or more crops of flax, oats or other crops grown, and the land again seeded down. These soils are usually best for producing grasses or vegetables, and are sometimes used in the cultivation of celery. But if fertilized, and the drainage and cultivation properly managed, they will produce a number of the staple crops. They are

not good wheat soils. Oats thrive better than most grains, and corn for fodder may also be raised on some peaty soils.

Timothy and alsike clover, or timothy alone, will make large yields of hay where the water level can be maintained at a point to keep up the proper moisture supply. Where the conditions are slightly too wet for these crops, red-top will make a good yield of hay of fair quality, and on some marshes too wet for red-top, fair