the beard is on the flowering glume, or that portion of the hull farthest from the center of the spike, any pressure from without will break the beard off without disturbing the hull, while pressure from within outward is liable to peel off a portion of the hull. Obviously the extent of such injury will depend upon the condition of the grain at the time of threshing.

A

II. FUNGOUS DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES.

B

Loose smut on barley: A, two-rowed variety; B, six-rowed variety. One.

third natural size

1 ES R. XII, p. 457.

462. FUNGOUS DISEASES.-Barley is subject to black stem rust and orange leaf rust, as in wheat. (146) The leaves are also attacked by the conidial stage (Oidium monilioides Lv.) of the powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis D. C.), whose greyish, mouldy tufts cause discoloration of the tissue. The loose or naked smut (Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. and Sw.) not infrequently reduces the spikelets to a sooty mass of spores. The covered smut (U. hordei (Pers.) Kell. and Sw.) is less common. The modified hot water treatment may be used for both smuts. Soak the seed grain for four hours in cold water, let stand four hours in wet sacks, then immerse for five minutes in water at a temperature of 130° F., which is three degrees lower than for wheat. (148) It has been shown that formalin solution will kill covered smut. 1

463. INSECT ENEMIES.- Barley is comparatively free from insect attacks. However, barley probably suffers more from attacks of chinch bugs than any other cereal; whether it is because the chinch bugs prefer the barley or the barley is less able to resist their attacks is less clear. (151) The Hessian fly also attacks barley, although ordinarily it is not so destructive as in wheat (152); so also does the wheat bulb worm. (153) Barley is also attacked by a joint worm (Isosoma hordei Harris), which produces galls at or near the nodes or joints of

the culm

III. USE.

464. Use.-Barley is chiefly used as a food for domestic animals and for malting purposes. Barley meal is a suitable food for all classes of domestic animals wherever maize would be found desirable, which it nearly equals in feeding value. In Europe it takes the place largely which maize does in America. In this country, its use as a stock food is not general as compared with maize or oats, except in the Pacific Coast States, where it is largely raised, not only for its grain but also for hay. Barley is little used in this country as an article of human food, principally as pearl barley. Pearl barley is the naked kernel, the hull having been removed by special machinery. Barley straw is at least equal in feeding value to oat straw. When used as bedding, one part of wheat straw has been found to absorb 2.2 parts of water, oat straw 2.28 parts, while one part of barley straw has been found to absorb 2.85 parts of water.1

465. Use for Malting.—While oats and wheat are sometimes used in the production of malt, barley is preferred because it develops less insoluble proteids, has greater peptonizing and diastatic power. It is also preferred to wheat on account of its hull. (440) Maize is not desirable on account of its high per cent of fat. While neither maize nor rice is used for malting, both are largely used in the manufacture of beer as raw cereals, the rice having its hull removed and the maize being degerminated. Both are used with malt.

466. By-Products.-There are two by-products in the production of malt extract: (1) malt sprouts and (2) brewers' grains. Both are placed upon the market in the wet and dry state. For sanitary reasons, they are best purchased in the latter state. Malt sprouts, as the name implies, are the sprouts or young barley plants which have been sprouted for the purpose of changing the starch of the barley into a soluble form where it 1 E. S. R. V, p. 144

can be extracted with water. These young plants, like all young plants, are rich in protein and as usually sold form a cheap and satisfactory source of protein for milch cows. The brewers' grains consist of that portion of the barley which is left after the removal of the sprouts and extraction of the carbohydrates made soluble through sprouting. They also form an acceptable food for milch cows, although they are less nitrogenous than malt sprouts. They may also be fed to fattening cattle and to horses. Neither is desirable for swine on account of the crude fiber contained. The composition of the dried forms is as follows:1

From one-fourth to two-thirds of the protein of the mak sprouts may be in the form of amides. The nitrogen-free extract of the brewers' grains consists largely of pentosans and not true starch. Barley feed, a by-product in the manufacture of pearl barley, is produced in small quantities. It makes a rather low grade feed. Barley screenings, when ground, form an acceptable carbonaceous food.

JV. PRODUCTION AND MARKETING.

467. Barley Crop of the World.-The world's production of barley varied during the five years 1898 to 1902 from 921 million (1900) to 1,177 million (1902), with an average annual production of 1,013 million bushels. The following table shows the average annual production of barley for five years by continents in million bushels:

Mass. (Hatch) Bul. 94.

Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary, in order named, are the principal barley producing countries, contributing twothirds the combined production of Europe and Asia.

468. Barley Crop of the United States. In extent of production, barley ranks fourth among the cereals in the United States. The crop is, however, of much less importance than wheat, maize or oats. The acreage of wheat is more than onehalf, that of oats less than one-third, and that of barley about one-twenty-fifth the acreage of maize. Relatively, the acreage of barley is increasing. In common with the other cereals, barley has decreased in value per bushel; the average price during the ninety decade was forty-three cents, a decrease of sixteen cents from the previous decade. The value per acre in 1899 of the four crops named above was: wheat, $6.90; oats, $7.24; maize, $8.71; barley, $9.34.

469. Barley Crop of Canada.-The following table shows the average annual production of five cereals in the United States and Canada for five years, 1898-1902 inclusive, in million bushels: 1

470. Center of Barley Production. In 1850 the North Atlantic division produced eighty-one per cent of the barley crop of the country; in 1900 the North Central division produced sixty-eight per cent, and the Western division twenty-eight per cent. The center of production has moved westward from about the center of New York in 1850 to near the junction of Iowa and South Dakota in 1900. In 1850 New York reported 69.4 per cent of the entire barley crop; in 1900, while reporting nearly the same number of bushels as in 1850, her contribution was only 2.5 per cent of the entire crop. The growth of barley is so concentrated in this country that nine States furnish ninety-one per cent of the total production. To produce an equal percentage of the maize crop, nineteen States would be required. The nine States referred to are California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, Washington, New York and Nebraska; the first four of which produce three-fourths of the total crop.

471. Yield per Acre.-The average annual yield per acre of barley during the decade 1893-1902 was nearly twenty-four (23.7) bushels, an increase of more than one bushel over the previous decade. The yield per acre is quite uniform in all except the Southern States, which yielded about four bushels below the average. Thirty-five to forty bushels is considered a good yield per acre, and where the soil and weather conditions are very favorable, a higher yield may be obtained.

472. Exports and Imports. During the past decade the annual export of barley has been about eleven per cent of the production, San Francisco being the chief exporting center. The United Kingdom, Australasia and Portuguese Africa receive the largest quantities of the exported grain. The import has been comparatively small, coming chiefly from Canada.

473. Commercial Grades. -The Illinois Board of Railroad and Warehouse Commissioners recognizes the following classes and grades: