Who should be used only in reference to persons; which to things; that in reference to persons or things: -The man who speaks; the man that speaks; the book which I bought; the book that I bought. When that is used as a relative pronoun, a preposition or governing word cannot precede it :-The person to whom I alluded; the person that I alluded to. The relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person, and gender. Although they never alter their form to express this agreement in number and person, they require the verbs following them to do so. "O thou that tellest good tidings to Zion." "Unto me who am less than the least of all saints." Frequently in a sentence the relative pronoun is omitted. "Men must reap the things they sow."-Shelley. "There is a willow grows ascant the brook."-Id. "He is a good huntsman, can catch some-not all.”—Burton. Sometimes the antecedent of a relative pronoun is omitted:: "Who steals my purse steals trash."-Shakspere. "Vengeance strikes whom heaven decrees to fall." "Who stuck and spangled you with flatteries, washes it off."-Shakspere. "Who will may pant for glory."-Cowper. "Nor does it follow that who fights must fall."-Crabbe. The compounds whoever, whosoever, etc., generally have the antecedent omitted : Whoever pleases (he) may be present. D What, as a relative, is equivalent to a relative and its antecedent (that which): Tell me what (i. e. that which) he said. As an interrogative, it can be used either alone (What did you say?) or to limit the substantive which follows it (What book did you ask for? What men were present?) That is sometimes used instead of what, as equivalent to that which: "To do always that is righteous in thy sight." "We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen." Which, as an interrogative, is always used partitively, and loses its distinctive neuter character: Which of you will go? It is sometimes used to limit a substantive: "Which things are an allegory." What, in such expressions as what with this and what with that, loses its pronominal character, and becomes a partitive adverb. Whether was formerly used as a pronoun in reference to one of two objects: "Whether of them twain did the will of his father?” When the word as is a relative pronoun its antecedent is such, same, so much, etc.: "Our soldiers perform such feats as they are not able to express."-Addison. “I wish all men did heartily believe so much of this as is true."-Jeremy Taylor. "To be the same in thine own act and valour as thou art in desire."-Shakspere. "Such as go down to the sea."-Psalter. The word but is often used as a relative pronoun, and a negative at the same time : : There is no one but will agree with me. "No scene of life but has contributed Much to remember."-Rogers. "There breathes not clansman of thy line But would have given his life for thine."-Scott. The relative and demonstrative pronouns have three genders-masculine, feminine, and neuter. 5. Reciprocal Pronouns, used to denote mutual interchange of action: each other, one another. They loved one another. They are kind to each other. 6. Distributive Pronouns.-Each, every, either, neither, of these neither is plural, and the remaining three singular: Each has his own appointed work. Every man is subject to these conditions. Neither of the members were present. 7. Indefinite Pronouns, denoting quantity indefinitely : all, any, any one, much, no, no one, none, some, some one, etc. Have you any money? We have papered all the Did you see any one? No one has called this morning. "Our little ones." room. Some one inquired for you. There is some wine in the bottle, but not much. 8. Numeral Pronouns, denoting number. The simple names of numbers are called CARDINAL NUMERALS, and may be used substantively, or to limit substantives :—He took five apples, but three of them were very small. - Those numerals which denote the place of one individual in a series are called ORDINAL NUMERALS :He brought me the second volume, but the first was not ready. Those numerals denoting definite parts of a whole are called FRACTIONAL NUMERALS:-A quarter of a mile; two-fifths of the nuts. Those numerals denoting number indefinitely are called INDEFINITE NUMERALS:-All, every, few, many, such, several, some, etc. All the nuts; every student was present; many persons were frightened, but few were injured; several letters have arrived, and some have been answered. NOTE.-In such cases as It rains, It is said, They say, the pronouns, because they have no determined antecedent, are called INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. One, in such phrases as One hardly knows what to do, is called an INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN, because it is always used in the first person, referring to the speaker himself in an indefinite manner. The word has no etymological connection with the numeral one, but corresponds to the French indefinite on in such expressions as on dit, they say. The French on is an abbreviation of homme, from the Latin homo, and thus corresponds to the German indefinite man-man sagt: = on dit. The following table represents concisely the foregoing arrangement of the pronouns : -- (a. Simple personal. tive. b. Possessive demonstra tive. c. Reflexive demonstra 2. Demonstrative. PRONOUNS. 3. Interrogative. 4. Relative. 5. Reciprocal. 6. Distributive. 8. Numeral comparison. a. Cardinal. V.-VERBS. A Verb is a word which predicates, that is, which forms a sentence. Verbs are of two kinds-NOTIONAL and RELATIONAL. If the verb predicates an action done or suffered, it is a Notional Verb, and either transitive or intransitive: Trans. He threw the stone; the window was opened. Intrans. The sun shone; the child awakes. If the verb is used merely to denote some relation of tense, mood, or voice, or to couple two parts of a sentence together, it is a Relational Verb: I shall write. The door is open. With regard to verbs, we have to consider their CONJUGATION, VOICE, MOOD, TENSE, NUMBER, and PERSON. 1. Conjugation.-Conjugation is the joining of the simple notion of the verb with its various relations of voice, mood, tense, number, and person. There are four ways in which this process of joining may be performed; that is to say, there are four conjugations: 1. Simple Conjugation: I praise. 2. Emphatic Conjugation, used to denote emphasis or denial, or to ask a question: I do praise. Do I praise? I do not praise. This conjugation affects none but Notional Verbs, and even these only the present and past tense of the active voice, by help of the particles do and did. In all other cases the simple conjugation |