the double stars of Dr. Herschel; M. Messier's nebulæ ; and all those of Dr. Herschel, excepting his second and third classes; that is, all those which are capable of being discerned with any telescope inferior to his own. This work contains five distinct catalogues, viz. Dr. Maskelyne's new catalogue of 36 principal fixed stars; a general catalogue of all the stars in zones of north-polar distance; an index of the general catalogue; a catalogue of all the stars, in the order in which they pass the meridian; and a catalogue of zodiacal stars, in longitude and latitude. CATANANCHE, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Equalis class and order. Natural order of Compound Flowers. Division, Semiflosculose. Cinarocephala, Jussieu. Essential character: receptacle chaffy; calyx imbricate; down awned from a five-bristled calycle. There are three species, of which C. carulea puts forth many narrow hairy leaves, which are jagged on their edges like those of buckshorn plantain; but the leaves are broader, the jags deeper and at greater distances; these lie flat on the ground, turning their points upwards, which are very narrow. Between the leaves come out the flower stalks, which are in number proportionable to the size of the plant; for from an old thriving root there is frequently eight or ten, and young plants do not send out more than two or three; each of the peduncles are terminated with single heads of flowers, having a dry, silvery, scaly calyx, in which are included three or four florets; these are of a fine blue colour, with a dark spot at bottom, and in each the stamens, with their yellow summits, standing a little above the petals, make a pretty appearance. It is a native of the South of Europe. CATAPLASM, an external topical medicine, of a soft consistence, and prepared of ingredients of different virtues, according to the intention of the physician. See PHARMACY. CATARACT, in medicine and surgery, a disorder of the humours in the eye, by which the pupilla, that ought to appear transparent and black, looks opaque, grey, blue, brown, &c. by which vision is variously impeded, or totally destroyed. CATARRH. See MEDICINE. CATASTASIS, in poetry, the third part of the ancient drama, being that wherein the intrigue, or action, set forth in the epitasis, is supported, and carried on, and heightened, till it be CATEGORY, in logic, a series or order of all the predicates or attributes contained under any genus. The school philosophers distribute all the objects of our thoughts and ideas into certain genera or classes, not so much, say they, to learn what they do not know, as to communicate a distinct notion of what they do know; and these classes the Greeks called categories, and the Latins predicaments. Aristotle made ten categories; viz. substance, quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, time, place, situation, and habit, which are usually expressed by the following technical distich: Arbor, sex, servos, ardore, refrigerat, ustos, Ruri, cras, stabo, nec tunicatus ero. CATENARIA, in the higher geometry, the name of a curve line formed by a rope hanging freely from two points of sus pension, whether the points be horizontal or not. The nature of this curve was sought after in Galileo's time, but not discovered till the year 1690, when Mr. Bernoulli published it as a problem. Dr. Gregory, in 1697, published a method of investigation of the properties formerly discovered by Mr. Bernoulli and Mr. Leibnitz, together with some new properties of this curve. From him we take the following method of finding the general property of the catenaria. 1. Suppose a line heavy and flexible, the two extremes of which F and D, Plate II. Miscellanies, fig. 8, are firmly fixed in those points; by its weight it is bent into a certain curve F A D, which is called the catenaria. 2. Let B D and b c be parallel to the horizon, A B perpendicular to B D, and Dc parallel to AB, and the points Bb infinitely near to each other. From the laws of mechanics, any three powers in equilibrio are to one another as the lines parallel to the lines of their direction, (or inclined in any given angle) and terminated by their mutual concourses; hence if D d express the absolute gravity of the particle D d, (as it will if we allow the chain to be every way uniform) then Dc will express that part of the gravity that acts perpendicularly upon Dd; and by the means of which this particle endeavours to reduce itself to a vertical position; so that if this lineola de be constant, the perpendicular action of gravity upon the parts of the chain will be constant too, and may therefore be expressed by any given right line. Further, the lineola Dc will express the force which acts against that conatus of the particle D d, by which it endeavours to restore itself in a position perpendicular to the horizon, and hinders it from doing so. This force proceeds from the ponderous line D A drawing according to the direction D d; and is, cæteris paribus, proportional to the line D A which is the cause of it. Supposing the curve FA D, therefore, as before, whose vertex is A, axis A B, ordinate B D, fluxion of the axis D C B b, fluxion of the ordinate d c, the relation of these two fluxions is thus; viz. dc: Dd::a: DA curve, which is the fundamental property of the curve, and may be thus expressed (putting A B and B Dy and AD=c = CATERPILLAR, in natural history: the larvæ of butterflies are universally known by the name of caterpillars, and CAT are extremely various in their forms and colours, some being smooth, others beset with either simple or ramified spines, and some are observed to protrude from tentacula or feelers, somewhat analagous their front, when disturbed, a pair of short to those of a snail. A caterpillar, when grown to its full size, retires to some convenient spot, and securing itself propereither suspends itself by the tail, hangly by a small quantity of silken filaments, an upright position, with the body fastening with its head downwards, or else in ments. It then casts off its caterpillar-skin, ed round the middle by a number of filaand commences crysalis, in which state it continues till the butterfly is ready for skin of the chrysalis, remains till its birth, which, liberating itself from the wings, which are first short, weak, and covered with moisture, are fully extended; this happens in about a quarter of an hour, when the animal suddenly quits the long confined, and becomes at pleasure state of inactivity to which it had been so an inhabitant of the air. honour of Mark Catesby, a genus of the same with what are commonly called pur- bishop's see or seat. the emperors, and other great men, gave A cathedral was originally different from what it is now, the Christians, till the time of Constantine, having no liberty to build any temple. By their churches they only meant their assemblies; and by their cathedrals, nothing more than consistories. CATHETER, in surgery, a fistulous instrument, usually made of silver, or silk coated with caoutchouc, to be introduced into the bladder, to discharge the urine when suppressed. See SUR GERY. CATHETUS, in geometry, a line or radius falling perpendicularly on another line or surface: thus the catheti of a right angled triangle are the two sides that include the right angle. CATOPTRICS, that part of optics that treats of reflex vision, and explains the laws and properties of reflection, chiefly founded upon this truth, that the angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence; and from thence deducing the magnitudes, shapes, and situations, of the appearances of objects seen by the reflection of polished surfaces, and particularly plane, spherical, conical, and cylindrical See OPTICS. ones. CATTLE. Under this term are comprehended horses and oxen of both sexes and of all ages; these we term black cattle while sheep, goats, &c. come under the designation of small cattle. The whole tribe are granivorous, and may be very easily maintained without the aid of the plough, though it is certain that the produce of tilled land will pay better, when appropriated to the support of cattle, than common pastures, or even artificial grasses. The latter, such as clover, saintfoin, burnet, &c. are superior to common meadow hay, for the purposes of winter fodder; making the animals appear better in their coats, or hair, and causing them to fatten, and to endure fatigue, far beyond what they could undergo on common field grass, or its hay. We have thousands of cattle-markets, where beasts of all descriptions may be purchased, in every stage of condition, and in all their varieties. The great improvements made of late years in farming, added to our great increase of population, have rendered the business of feeding cattle of great importance. CATTLE, law relating to. By a statute of Edward VI. no person shall buy any ox, &c. and sell the same again alive in the same market, or fair, on pain of forfeiting double the value thereof, half to the King, and half to him that shall sue. This is the act against forestalling, regrating, &c. CATURUS, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Triandria class and order. Natural order of Tricoccæ. Euphorbia, Jussieu. There are two species: C. spiciflorus is a tree about twenty feet in height, with many branches diffused all round; the wood is white and close, with a thick, dusky, unctuous, inodorous bark, and a yellow pith within; the fruit is a round, yellowish-green, insipid berry, inclosing one round green seed. Native of the East Indies. C. scandens is a native of the woods of Cochin China. CAVA, or VENA CAVA, in anatomy, a vein arising with a large sinus from the right auricle of the heart. See ANA TOMY. CAVALIER, in fortification, an elevation of earth, of different shapes, situated ordinarily in the gorge of a bastion, bordered with a parapet, and cut into more or less embrasures, according to the capacity of the cavalier. CAVALRY, a body of soldiers that charge on horseback, and may properly be called the right arm of the army: they are of great service in disturbing the enemy by their frequent excursions, in intercepting convoys, and destroying the country. The cavalry is divided into squadrons, and encamp on the wings of the army. CAUCALIS, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class and order. Natural order of Umbellatæ. Essential character: corolla radiated, in the disc; male, petals inflex-emarginate; fruit hispid; with bristles; involucres entire. There are nine species. These plants are all annual, or at most biennial, and are seldom cultivated, except in botanic gardens. They will rise readily from seeds, where they are permitted to scatter, and will grow in any soil and situation. CAVEAR, CAVEER, or CAVIARY, the spawn or hard roes of sturgeon, made into small cakes, an inch thick, and of an hand's breadth, salted and dried in the sun. The French and Italians get the cavear from Archangel, but they seldom get it at the first hand, for they commonly buy it of the English and Dutch. CAVEAT, in law, a kind of process in the spiritual courts, to stop the proving of a will, the granting letters of administration, &c. to the prejudice of another. It is also used to stop the institution of a clerk to a benefice. A caveat stands in The entering a caveat being at the instance of the party, is for the benefit of the ordinary, that he may do no wrong; it is a cautionary act for his better information, to which the temporal courts have no regard; therefore, if, after a caveat entered, the ordinary should grant administration, or probate of a will, it is not void by our law, though it is by the canon law; but our law takes notice of a caveat. CAVERNOSE, among anatomists, an appellation given to several parts of the body on account of their spongy structure: thus the cavernosa corpora are two spongy bodies, made up of a number of small caverns or cells. CAVETTO, in architecture, the reverse of a quarter round, being a concave moulding frequently used in the entabla ture. CAVIA, the cavy, in natural history, a genus of Mammalia, of the order Glires. Generic character: two wedge-shaped front teeth; eight grinders; from four to five toes on the fore-feet, from three to five on the hind-feet; tail very short, or none; no clavicles. There are seven species, of which those that follow are most deserving attention. C. cobaya, or the guinea pig. This animal is a native of South America, and found particularly in Brazil. It is tamed with great facility, and is inoffensive, timorous, and particularly cleanly; it does not, however, appear susceptible of strong attachments to its benefactors, nor is it remarkable for docility. It is one of the most prolific of animals, and Buffon calculates that, in twelve months only, one thousand might be produced from a single pair, as the female has been known to bring forth young when two months old only; and the time of gestation is only three weeks; and she will produce at least every two months. They are six or seven months before they arrive at their maturity of growth, but within the short period of twelve hours from their birth are nearly as alert and active as those fully grown, and therefore require parental assiduity only for a little time. Vegetables form their food, and on a great variety of these they will flourish and fatten very succulent food of this description, however, is injurious, and with sow-thistles and cabbage, should be employed for them nourishment of more consistency, such as grain and bread. They drink but little, appear, after eating CAV to ruminate, and are extremely apt to places used as articles of food, and even be affected by cold. They are in some considered as delicacies. They are un and are often to be seen smoothing and commonly cleanly in their habitations, cleansing their fur with particular attention and perseverance. In contests they circumstance, if it may be depended upon not only bite, but kick. It is a curious porters, that the male and female seldom as true, and it is stated by authentic resleep at the same time, but exercise over malia, Plate VII. fig. 2. each other alternate vigilance. See Mam C. paca, or the spotted cavy, of Penthe former, of South America; is highly nant, is clumsily formed; a native, like esteemed by the inhabitants of this quarter of the world for its food; is particucontinuing in its hole during the day, delarly fond of fruits and of sugar; and votes the night to activity and refreshment. See Mammalia, Plate VII. fig. 3. particularly the eastern parts of South C. capybara, or the river cavy, inhabits America; and when full grown weighs about a hundred pounds; it lives not only which, as it swims and dives extremely upon vegetables, but also upon fish, well, it procures with facility, but which of a mild disposition, and easily familiarit brings to land before it devours; it is ized by man; its pursuit of prey is generally engaged in by night; it frequents principally, marshes and the banks of risociate only in pairs. The female provers. These animals are reported to asduces only one young at a time. Their flesh is praised by some as exquisite, but others represent it as rank and fishy. animals move like hares, and grunt like C. aguti, the long-nosed cavy. These pigs; their food consists of various fruits, and of nuts, which they will hide, and abstain from touching for many months; they breed with the rapidity of rabbits, cies; their flesh is very agreeable to the no season checking their prolific tendentaste, and, even when they are old, acquires little or no toughness. They are caught by the Indians in Guinea, and other warm parts of South America, where alone they are to be met with in down by their dogs, and frequently being great numbers, sometimes being hunted taken in traps, to which they are allured by the accurate imitation of their peculiar sounds. They are nearly of the treat to burrows or holes of trees, which, size of a hare; when pursued, they reindeed, constitute their irregular and frequently changed abodes, and in which they are almost uniformly found alone; or the female with its young ones. They hold their food in the same manner as the squirrel; they make their excursions for food during the day, and may be easily domesticated, though not so completely as to exclude altogether their natural wildness. See Mammalia, Plate VII. fig. 4. CAUKING, or CAULKING of a ship, is driving oakum, or the like, into all the seams of the plank of a ship, to prevent leaking and keep out the water. CAULKING irons, are iron chissels for that purpose. Some of these irons are broad, some round, and others grooved. After the seams are stopped with oakum, it is done over with a mixture of tallow, pitch, and tar, as low as the ship draws water. CAUL, in anatomy, a 'membranaceous part of the abdomen, covering the greatest part of the intestines. CAULIFLOWERS, in gardening, a much esteemed species of brassica, or cabbage. CAUSE, causa, that from whence any thing proceeds, or by virtue of which any thing is done it stands opposed to effect. We get the ideas of cause and effect, says Mr. Locke, from our observation of the vicissitude of things, while we perceive some qualities or substances begin to exist, and that they receive their existence from the due application and operation of other beings. That which produces, is the cause, and that which is produced, the effect thus, fludity in wax is the effect of a certain degree of heat, which we observe to be constantly produced by the application of such heat. CAUSE, first, that which acts of itself, and of its own proper power or virtue : God is the only first cause in this sense. CAUSES, second, are those which derive the power and faculty of action from a first cause; these are improperly called causes, as they do not, strictly speaking, act at all, but are acted on: of this kind are all those that we term natural causes. CAUSES, final, are the motives inducing an agent to act; or the design and purpose for which the thing was done. Lord Bacon says, that the final cause is so far from being serviceable, that it corrupts the sciences, unless it be restrained to human actions: however, continues he, final causes are not false, nor unworthy of inquiry in metaphysics: but their excursions into the limits of physical causes hath made a great devastation in VOL. III. . that province; otherwise, when contained within their own bounds, they are not repugnant to physical causes. CAUSEWAY, or CAUSEY, a massive construction of stones, stakes, and fascines; or an elevation of earth, well beaten; serving either as a road in wet marshy places, or as a mole to retain the waters of a pond, or prevent a river from overflowing the lower grounds. CAUSTIC, a substance is said to CAUSTICITY, S be caustic, when it produces the same effect on the tongue as that of actual fire, that is, an immediate sensation of burning, followed with a slight disorganization of the surface actually in contact. Thus alkalies are called caustic when deprived of carbonic acid, because, when concentrated, they then burn and blister the tongue almost instantly. Caustic substances are also generally corrosive, or such as act upon organized matter, and decompose it with rapidity. The term caustic prefixed to the alkalies and earths, to distinguish the pure or decarbonated state, is now almost always omitted, as unnecessary, by the use of the term carbonate; thus, to the terms caustic potash, and mild potash, are substituted those of potash, and carbonate of potash, respectively. We also say lime, and the carbonate of lime. There is still some confusion with regard to the term soda among others; soda meaning in chemical language pure or caustic soda, but in commerce, and in common use, the mild or carbonate of soda. CAUSTIC, lunar, the old name for nitrate of silver, melted and cast into cylindrical pieces about the size of small black-lead pencils, for the use of surgeons: and the solution of lunar caustic is the proportion of from 8 to 12 grains in an ounce of water, and has been found an excellent remedy in cases of ringworm, as it is called, that is, when the hair falls off in patches from the head. CAUSTIC curve, in the higher geome try, a curve formed by the concourse or coincidence of the rays of light, reflected or refracted from some other curve. See CATACAUSTIC. CAYENNE pepper. This is the levigated or ground pod of the plant commonly known to us by the name of capsicum. There are many varieties; but the principal are:-1. The berberry capsicum, much resembling that fruit in size and colour, though infinitely more glowing. It is perhaps the most pungent of all the vegetable simples with which we are acquainted. 2. The long-pod, P |