Geneva watches, but in the better sort of those of English manufacture, it has been superseded by the duplex, and recently by the lever, which is nothing more than the application of Graham's dead-beat escapement to the watch, though patents have been taken out by various persons who have claimed the invention. The most remarkable inventions of this period were those of Harrison, consisting of his gridiron pendulum, the going fusee, the compensation curb, and the remontoir escapement. In 1736, he appears to have completed his longitude watch, and received from the Royal Society their gold medal; he ultimately received the government reward of £20,000, together with other sums from the Board of Longitude and from the Hon. East India Company. Notwithstanding his application of the compensation curb to the watch, it was still a subject of inquiry, and by many persons it was thought that the expansion and contraction of the metal, of which the spring is composed, was the source of variation in the equality of its motion under changes of temperature; but the consideration that the change of rate in the clock, with a seconds, pendulum, in passing from the winter to the summer temperature, amounted only to about twenty seconds, while that of the watch exceeded six minutes and a half under similar circumstances, led careful observers to infer that some other cause must be assigned for the anomaly, and the loss of elasticity of the balance-spring by heat began to be suspected, as appears by the following passage in the Prize Essay of Daniel Bernoulli, read before the French Academy :-"I must not omit," said this celebrated geometrician,

a circumstance which may be prejudicial to balance-watches; it is, that experimental philosophers pretend to have remarked that certain changes of elastic force uniformly follow changes of temperature. If that be the case, the spring can never uniformly govern the balance. That which Bernoulli only conjectured, was in 1773 established as a matter of certainty, and the amount in loss of time, due to each of the three conjointly operating causes, determined by Berthoud to be,-loss by expansion of the balance, 62 seconds; loss by elongation of the balance-spring, 19 seconds; and loss by the diminution of the spring's elastic force by heat, 312 seconds, by an increase of 60° of heat of Fahrenheit's scale. We have previously observed that Harrison's

compensation curb was inefficient, as, besides other defects, it interfered too much with the isochronism of thebalance-spring, as the inventor himself was candid enough to confess that the balance, balancespring, and compensation curb, were not contemporaneously affected by changes of temperature, since small pieces of metal were sooner affected than large, and those in motion before those at rest. Whence he was led to conclude, that if the provision for heat and cold could properly reside in the balance itself, as was the case with his gridiron pendulum clocks, the timepiece might be made much more perfect. This ingenuous observation is the more to Harrison's credit, as it was certainly his interest to conceal such a suggestion, being at that time a candidate for the government reward. The complexity of Harrison's time-keeper, and the high price, £400, demanded by Kendall to make them after that model, still left the time-keeper to be discovered that would come within the means of purchase of private individuals: for admirably as Harrison had succeeded in the construction of those which had procured him his reward, and great as were the talents of his assistant Kendall, yet, for practical purposes, there needed an instrument of greater simplicity, and to John Arnold we are indebted for its invention.

Arnold is also celebrated for the manufacture of the smallest repeating-watch ever known; it was made for his majesty George III., to whom it was presented on his birth-day, the 4th of June, 1764. Although less than six-tenths of an inch in diameter, it was perfect in all its parts, repeated the hours, quarters, and halfquarters, and contained the first ruby cylinder ever made. Indeed so novel was the construction of this little specimen of mechanical skill, that he was forced not only to form the design and execute the work himself, but also to manufacture the greater part of the tools employed in its construction. It is minutely described in Rees's Cyclopædia, and also in the Sporting Magazine of that time, in which latter work it is correctly stated to be of the size of a silver twopence, and its weight that of a sixpence. The king was so much pleased with this rare specimen of mechanical skill, that he presented Mr. Arnold with 500 guineas; and the emperor of Russia afterwards offered Mr. Arnold 1000 guineas for a duplicate of it, which he declined.

Arnold's model, though destined to

perform the same office as Harrison's, was entirely different in its construction, and was as simple as his predecessor's was complex. By progressive stages of improvement, it was brought by the inventor himself to so high a point of perfection that it continues to be the model followed in the construction of the best chronometers of the present day. The instruments upon which Arnold experimented, are now in the possession of his successor, Mr. C. Frodsham, and show the gradual progress of advancement made in the escapement, etc., until he arrived at that beautiful, yet simple, detached escapement, which is still followed, and known under the name of the Arnold escapement. He was the first watchmaker who introduced jewelling into watches and clocks, and in 1771 he applied ruby pallets to the two clocks of the Royal Society by Graham and Smeaton, and likewise to the transit clock by Graham at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. In 1776 Arnold achieved what was unquestionably his greatest work, viz., the invention of the cylindrical spring and compensation balance, and their application in the chronometer, which is the name that Arnold then first employed to designate his time-keepers. This ingenious and valuable discovery introduced a new era in chronometry. Each part of the machine under the new arrangement performed unchecked the office assigned to it. The escapement was completely detached, except at the moment of discharge and giving impulse; the balance-spring, no longer interfered with in corrections for temperature (as formerly) by the compensating curb, became a free agent and the generator of motion, in which state only it is capable of being perfectly isochronized; the balance, by its expansion and contraction, varied its inertia according to the varied tension of the balance-spring by its increased or diminished elastic force in changes of temperature, while the office of the main-spring was reduced to that of a simple maintaining power. This beautiful discovery, together with the law of isochronism and other important improvements in the modification of the compensation-balance, procured for him and his son, John Roger Arnold, the reward from government of the sum of £3,000. The accuracy with which chronometers keep time is truly astonishing; in 1830, two chronometers constructed by Mr. Charles Frodsham were submitted

for public trial at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, for twelve months, and were observed daily. One of them made an extreme variation of 86-hundredth parts of a second, and the other of 57-hundredths only; but even this degree of accuracy, surprising as it is, is surpassed by the performance of his best astronomical clocks. It is therefore highly honourable to the English artists, that by their ingenuity and skill they have accomplished the great object which had occupied the attention of the learned of Europe for nearly 300 years, namely, the means of discovering the longitude at sea. It is not a little singular that Sir Isaac Newton suggested the discovery of the longitude by the aid of an accurate time-keeper.

If we go back to the period of Philip III. of Spain, we shall then see the interest and importance attached to this great discovery. As early as 1598, this monarch offered a reward of 100,000 crowns to any person who should discover the means of finding the longitude of a ship at sea; but what was the opinion then entertained of the nature of the task to be accomplished by means of the balance-watches then in use, may be gathered from an expression of Morin, who wrote about the year 1630, and who, in speaking to the cardinal Richelieu of the difficulty of constructing an instrument which should keep time to the requisite degree of accuracy for that purpose, is reported to have said, "Id verò an ipsi demoni nescio, homini autem suscipere scio esse stultissimum.”*—Beckmann'sInventions, by Francis and Griffiths.

THE ROMISH MISSIONARY XAVIER.

SOME account of the celebrated Francis Xavier, who was an active and devoted missionary of the Romish religion, may be found interesting, as giving some idea of the efforts of the Jesuits in the east, at an early period, and exhibiting both the right and wrong features of a character of no common order, calculated to serve as an example, and also as a warning to others. His history is little known to the generality of Protestants, and among Papists it has been mixed with foolish and fabulous legends. The chief facts are as follows, being stated in Hough's "Christianity in India:""One of the first and best of Loyola's disciples

"I know not what such an undertaking would be even to the devil himself, but to man it would, undoubtedly, be the height of folly."

was Francis Xavier, whose zeal and charity would have done honour to any cause, had they been directed solely by the word of God instead of the interests of his exclusive order and intolerant church. He was born April 7th, 1506, at the family castle of Xavier, which stands at the foot of the Pyrenees, seven or eight leagues from Pampeluna. At a very early age he manifested a contemplative mind, and took much more delight in wandering alone amid the wild mountain scenery of his native land than in the sports of the field. He was carefully educated at home under able masters, and made considerable proficiency in the classics. He removed to Paris in 1524, when eighteen years of age, to prosecute his studies at the celebrated university of that metropolis. Here he entered with ardour into the study of philosophy, and obtained great credit by his lectures on Aristotle. But he was soon to be diverted from his literary career. Ignatius Loyola (the founder of the society of Jesuits) came to Paris to complete his studies, and hearing of Xavier's fame, determined to become acquainted with him. He drew so impressive a contrast between the wisdom and honour of this world, and of religion, as to cause the determination of Xavier to waver, but he could not yet consent to forego the temporal ease and advantages within his reach.

"At that time there were several Lutherans at Paris, in whose conversation he appeared to take greater interest than in that of Loyola; and there can be little doubt that what he learned from them had some influence on the formation of his character, though he was dissuaded from adopting their sentiments.

"When Xavier had once fairly entered on his new career, he followed the spiritual exercises of Ignatius, with characteristic ardour, subjecting himself to all the privations which they enjoined. His teacher does not appear to have directed him to depend on the Holy Spirit to mortify the flesh with its affections and lusts, and there is no reason to suppose that he was actuated by the pure and disinterested motive of love to Christ. Ignatius had contrived to conciliate his confidence and regard, and to communicate to him no inconsiderable share of his own enthusiasm. Nothing could be more entire than his voluntary renunciation of all that the world presents to captivate the young and ambitious, and his adoption of everything repulsive to

human nature. Ignatius, Francis, and five other converts, solemnly dedicated themselves, on the summit of Montmartre, to the service of the pope, and the church of Rome; and faithfully did Xavier perform his vow, to the last moment of his life.

"After several years spent in active labour and patient suffering, performing long and perilous journeys on foot, in the depth of winter, and exposing himself to hardships that nearly brought him to the grave, he and his five companions were called by Ignatius to Rome, and introduced to the pope, who encouraged them to act under his direction. Xavier was afterwards appointed to proceed to India. His farewell to Loyola was very affecting : It is impossible for me to forget you, Ignatius, or not to recall to my memory that sincere and holy friendship which you have shown me. Father of my soul, when I am afar, I will think that you are still present, and that I behold you with my eyes; write to me often. The smallness of my talent is known to you; share with me those abundant treasures which Heaven has heaped upon you.'

"On his arrival at Lisbon, finding the next fleet for India was not to sail before the spring, he employed the intermediate time in visiting the beds of the sick, and the dungeons of the inquisition. The king and queen offered him apartments in the palace; but he preferred lodging in the hospital of All Saints', where he was surrounded by the sick and dying.

"The fleet arrived at Goa, May 6th, 1542, when Xavier waited on the bishop with his credentials, and was received with kindness and confidence. His first attention was given to the Portuguese, whom he found in a demoralized condition, and, in a short time, it is said, he had the satisfaction of observing a general improvement in their conduct.

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Although thus actively employed, he was not inattentive to the primary object of his mission-the conversion of the heathen; and he availed himself of every opportunity to prepare for the work. Natives were flocking to Goa from all parts of India, for purposes of trade, and from these he obtained information respecting their languages, customs, and religion. He visited no less than thirty villages along the coast, and thus describes his mode of proceeding: 'I went about with my bell in my hand, and gathered together all I met, both men

and children; I instructed them in the Christian doctrine. The children learned it easily by heart, in the compass of a month; and when they understood it, I charged them to teach it to their fathers and mothers, then to all of their own family, and even to their neighbours.

"On Sundays I assembled the men and women, little boys and girls, in the chapel; all came to my appointment with an incredible joy, and most ardent desire to hear the word of God. I began with confessing God to be one in nature, and triune in persons. I afterwards repeated distinctly, and with an audible voice, the Lord's prayer, the angelical salutation, and the apostles' creed. All of them together repeated after me, and it is hardly to be imagined what pleasure they took in it. This being done, I repeated the creed distinctly, and, insisting on every particular article, asked if they really believed it. They all protested to me, with loud cries, and their hands across their breasts, that they firmly believed it. My practice is, to make them repeat the creed oftener than the (other) prayers; and I declare to them, at the same time, that they who believe the contents of it are true Christians.

"From the creed I pass to the ten commandments, and give them to understand that the Christian law is comprised in these precepts, that he who keeps them all, according to his duty, is a good Christian, and that eternal life is decreed to him. That, on the contrary, whoever violates one of these commandments is a bad Christian, and that he shall be damned eternally in case he repent not of his sin. Both the new Christians, and the Pagans admire our law, as holy and reasonable, and consistent with itself. Having done as I told you, my custom is to repeat with them the Lord's prayer and the angel's salutation. Once, again, we recite the creed, and at every article, besides the paternoster and the ave maria, we intermingle some short prayer -and almost in the same manner, we run over the ten commandments.' The false doctrines which are implied in these statements need no comments.

"This is a fair specimen of Xavier's usual mode of proceeding with the natives, whether heathen, or nominal Christians. How he can have expected them to comprehend this confusion of doctrine and precept, is unaccountable. Perhaps he did not expect it, and sought only to obtain that implicit acquiescence in all

that he told them to believe and do, which the Roman church inculcates as the first duty of her children. This she calls Christian humility; and these poor people were, in this respect, as humble as could be desired. In fact, they were too dependent on the Portuguese, to think of withholding their assent from whatever their preceptor told them to believe. We are not surprised, then, at his numerical success, nor that he himself at last became ashamed of the converts he had taken such means to instruct.

"He spent fifteen months among these thirty villages, giving, upon an average, about a fortnight to each, and he placed over the congregations formed in this manner, the most intelligent persons he could find among them. These he taught to repeat what he had translated; which appears to have been their principal, if not their only qualification.

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Obtaining three companions, and having assigned to each of his colleagues a district on the coast, he penetrated further into the country alone. He thus wrote to Mansilla, one of his colleagues : 'You may judge what manner of life I lead here, by what I shall relate to you. I am wholly ignorant of the language of the people, and they understand as little of mine, and I have no interpreter. All I can perform is to baptize children, and serve the sick-an employment easily understood, without the help of an interpreter, by only minding what they want.'

"His attention was next directed to Travancore, the rajah of that country having been induced, at the solicitation of the Portuguese, to allow him to preach in his dominions. There he found a more numerous population; and pursuing the same course as with the fishermen on the coast, he met with even greater success. He writes, that in one month he baptized with his own hand ten thousand idolaters, and that frequently in one day he baptized a well-peopled village. He says, also, that it was to him a most pleasing object to behold, that so soon as these infidels had received baptism, they ran, vieing with each other, to demolish the temples of the idols." No less than fortyfive churches were immediately built for the use of these converts. Those who know the care and patience required to inculcate Divine truth upon the Hindoo mind, will be able to estimate correctly such rapid and wholesale conversions. Instead of improving by experience, and taking more pains to instruct the Malabars, than