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nature from within, responds to the voice of nature from without. They cannot go along with you, perhaps, in your demonstration of a principle; but they can comprehend the principle itself. They can learn nothing from a laboured disquisition on the beauty of virtue; but they can both see its beauty and feel its attractions, if presented before them in action and character. Now, by becoming familiar with the history of holy men, you will become familiar with the principles of religion itself; for it is these, in fact, you are required to contemplate, embodied in obvious and striking illustrations."-Dr. Harris.

THE REFORMERS BEFORE THE

REFORMATION. No. XV.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EMPEROR AND THE COUNCIL AGAINST THE POPE-ORATION OF GERSON, AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS-DECREES OF THE FIFTH SESSION-SECOND FLIGHT OF JOHN XXIII.

JOHN XXIII. considered that the council was broken up by his withdrawal, and it nearly was so in reality, if not in principle. Several of the cardinals had already followed the pope to Schaffhausen. The Italians, who were almost entirely attached to his interests, and who reckoned 300 votes, were inclined to leave Constance, and of the three other nations, those who feared that John XXIII. would, on his return to freedom, resume his former authority, and others, indeed the most numerous part, either from feelings of discouragement, or weariness, were equally inclined to retire. Sigismund averted the danger; animated by his ardent zeal for the peace of the church and the union of Christendom, immediately after the departure of the pope, he showed himself worthy of the title of protector of the council, and acted as became an emperor.

terms, the past conduct of the pope and cardinals, their breach of faith, their efforts to dissolve or fetter the council, accusing John XXIII. of tyranny, simony, and other offences; and finally exhorting the members of the council to judge him according to his deserts, and according to what had been done with the concurrence of former emperors, in deposing several popes.

Sigismund then caused the nations again to assemble in the cathedral, and there, in the presence of all, once more declared that he would support the council at the peril of his life. Deliberations arose, as to bringing back John XXIII. to Constance, and constraining him to abdicate. At length four deputies, namely, three cardinals and Regnaud de Chartres, archbishop of Rheims, were sent to Schaffhausen, to convey to him the resolutions of the council. But in order to give efficacy to the measures taken for reducing the pope to submission, others must be adopted, to subdue Frederick of Austria, the companion of his flight, and his protector. For this. purpose, the emperor assembled all the princes, and in their presence denounced the archduke as a traitor to the empire and the council, and required them to unite their efforts to subdue him. yielded to his firmness; not a single voice was raised in the defence of Frederick; he was summoned to give account of his conduct before the council, and the emperor and Sigismund prepared to overcome him by force of arms.

All

The pope, terrified at the storm which was bursting upon his head, wrote to the emperor in submissive language, that he had arrived at Schaffhausen, unknown to the archduke of Austria, not to avoid fulfilling the promise to abdicate, which he had given, but that he might freely execute his promise, and without danger to his health. Yet it was evident that John XXIII. would yield only to force; and after the emperor had successfully directed his temporal power against him, the council resorted to other arms no less formidable.

The day next following he appeared on horseback, attended by the elector palatine, and all the princes of his court. He paraded the city with trumpets The departure of the pope again exsounding, promising to every one the cited the great question already discussed, same security as before, declaring that and at one time settled, by the council the council was not interrupted by the of Pisa, as to the respective rights of flight of the pope, and that he would popes and general councils, and the supeshed the last drop of his blood in its riority of the one over the other. They defence. At the same time, he secretly had to decide as to whether the obstinate ordered that a writing should be every-resistance of a pontiff could annul the where posted, declaring, in energetic acts of an universal council, or if the

latter, acting for the interests of the church, could not overcome a rebellious and factious pope. From the moment when the council, in the absence of the pope, persisted in declaring itself a lawful assembly, the solution of this problem was no longer a matter of uncertainty.

Those who had, from motives of fear, at first objected to declare themselves in opposition to the pope, wisely proceeded to deprive him of weapons which he would otherwise have turned against themselves, and hastened to join the men who, led by conscience alone, resisted the omnipotence of the papacy. Among the latter, the representatives of the university of Paris were conspicuous, and among the most eminent, their admirable chancellor.

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On March 23rd, 1415, Gerson preached, in the presence of the representatives of the four nations, a celebrated sermon on this text, 'Walk while ye have the light, lest darkness come upon you," John xii. 35. His discourse was the torch which enlightened the council. In the words of the apostle, Gerson advised his hearers, "to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. Let there be," said he, "but one body and one soul; one God alone, one faith alone, one baptism only. Let us be united in Christ, our Head, on whom every member depends, and to whom all are bound and subjected." From this primary truth he deduced twelve propositions, of which the chief were, that ecclesiastical union has reference to one Head alone, who is Jesus Christ; and that it is made by a secondary head, who is called the sovereign pontiff, and who is the vicar of Jesus Christ; and that in Christ the church possesses a spouse so inseparable, that he never can give her letters of divorce; but that, on the contrary, the church is not so bound to the vicar of her spouse that they cannot be sepa

rated.

"The church, or the general council which represents it," observed Gerson, "is an ordinance directed by the Holy Spirit, and appointed by Jesus Christ, that every man, even a pope, is bound to hear and obey, or else to be considered as a heathen man and a publican. In many cases, the church or council has met, or may be assembled, without an express consent or command from the pope, even when his election has been canonical and his life regular. Such cases are the following: for instance, if

the pope, being accused, and required to answer, obstinately refuses to call together the church; or if a general council having decided that another council shall be held at a stated season, the pope refuses to summon it; or, finally, if there is a schism or strife between several popes." Gerson closed with these words: "The church, or the general council, ought to seek the extirpation of error, and the correction of those who err, without any respect of persons, The order and hierarchy of the church should be reformed upon the model of the celestial hierarchy, by conforming to ancient rules. And there is no more effectual method for the church to attain this object, than by prescribing the continuation of general councils, without neglecting provincial councils."

The university of Paris made use of still stronger and more energetic expressions, in two memorials addressed to the council. One of these expressed, in substance, that the church is more necessary than the pope, because none can be saved out of the church, but men may well be saved without the pope. The church is more useful and excellent, because the pope is for the church, and not the church for the pope. More honourable, because she is the spouse of Christ, the wife of the Lamb. More powerful, because the gates of hell shall not prevail against her, though by vices and heresies they often have prevailed against the popes. Possessing more understanding, because she is adorned by many gifts, which never were united in any one pope. That it is from the church the pope receives the sovereign authority which habitually dwells in her, though she gives to the pope authority to exercise it. To the church Jesus Christ has given the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and the pope only holds them from her; and, when lawfully convoked, the church can use these keys to judge, to correct, or to depose the pope, even as it has power to snatch a sword from the hands of a madman; and that the church has not entrusted these keys to the pope to destroy, but to build up. The conclusion of the memorial is, that, in many cases, the council is superior to the pope.

The cardinals had refused to listen to the preaching of Gerson, and from that time they kept themselves apart. They felt, that in the state of things which then existed, the acts of the council would strike a serious blow at the authority of

the Romish church, of which they were the representatives; and their chief aim was to restrict or shackle the decrees of the assembly.

John xxIII., on his part, had recourse to all sorts of means for his own defence. He addressed a letter of apology to the king of France, the duke of Orleans, and the University, protesting against the validity of the acts of the council, and his reasoning, in some respects, was plausible. He said, that at Constance, the customs of the earlier councils had not been observed. The suffrages had been collected, not individually, but by nations. All persons were indiscriminately admitted, whether religious or secular, married or unmarried; whether they had taken degrees or not, whether or not they were of honourable stations. All these things had been done, although, according to the canons, only cardinals, patriarchs, and prelates had a right to deliberate and vote in councils. The pope accused the king of the Romans of having assumed an authority at Constance which did not belong to him, while he himself was deprived of all liberty. He concluded by avowing the assistance of the duke of Austria, which he had denied in his letter to the emperor; and while thus negotiating with foreigners, he redoubled his efforts to withdraw from the council the Italian nation, the cardinals, and all who by their interests or fortune were united to the see of Rome.

Sigismund, supported by the three other national bodies, overcame all resistance by force, and on March 23rd, he caused the third general session to be opened, which was the first after the flight of John xxIII. Two of the cardinals only were present; these were Zabarelli, cardinal of Florence, and Peter d'Ailly, cardinal of Cambrai, who both, especially the latter, manifested unfeigned zeal for the extinction of the schism, yet at the same time desired to preserve the privileges of the Romish church.

The cardinal of Florence, at the commencement of the session, read an act, by which the council declared, that it was not dissolved by the withdrawal of the pope and most of the cardinals; but that it remained, in all its power and authority, whatever might be said, either in present or future time, to express a contrary opinion. Every prelate and member of the council was forbidden to withdraw without lawful cause. As for those who had obtained permission to

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Nevertheless, the pope continued his intrigues; and the commissioners sent to Schaffhausen, returned with words, in which the council could perceive nothing but the wish to escape from the dangers of the moment, by holding out deceptive prospects. John XXIII. said that he was ready to appoint representatives, to make the resignation he had promised; then he added, as pope, that he would issue a bull for the reformation of the church, and required that he might still be attended by a court, and especially, that nothing might be undertaken against Frederick of Austria, who alone protected his independence.

Provoked by these evasive replies, Sigismund increased his efforts to subdue the pope, both by the decrees of the council and the arms of his soldiers. He caused still stronger articles to be prepared, to be read in another session, even more precise than those which had been adopted by the preceding assembly.

These articles stated, that recourse had been had to all the measures sanctioned by the canon-law for constraining and punishing such as obstinately refused to obey the decrees of the council, or of any other general council lawfully assembled. They also declared that the pope, and every other member of the council, had enjoyed perfect liberty. Gerson caused a strong declaration to be appended to these articles, which were presented by the bishop of Tolentino, and declared that the flight of the pope caused strong suspicions of heresy and schism, and that he could not allege any fears as a sufficient excuse, since it was his duty to sacrifice his life for his flock.

The fourth general session was announced for March 30th, and its formidable preparations filled John XXII. with terror.

He was no less dismayed to see the imperial armies in motion, and he felt himself no longer secure at Schaffhausen, so near to the council and the emperor, and accordingly quitted that place of residence; while already several princes and cities, terrified at the storm which threatened his protector, the archduke, had severed the feudal ties which

bound them to him. Messengers arrived from all quarters, bearing evil tidings; and the reports of such fallings off, says a contemporary writer, were as wings or spurs to John xxIII.

He turned his course towards the castle of Laufenbourg, situated on the banks of the Rhine, where he arrived in the evening. But he was scarcely out of the walls of Schaffhausen, when, calling for a notary and for witnesses, he dictated to them a retractation of all that he had done at Constance, protesting that when in the council there, his promises and oaths had only been the result of violence and fear, and that, in consequence, he was not to be considered as bound to the performance of such promises. His secretary relates that he repeated this protestation in various places; yet, regulating his words not by the truth, but by the inclinations of those to whom his epistles were addressed, he wrote several in a very different style, thus constantly giving himself the lie in a shameful

manner.

THE TURKEY VULTURE.

FOREIGNERS, when they visit the coast of Peru for the first time, are much surprised at the immense number of birds of the vulture species which they meet with about the roads and on the roofs of the houses. In Callao and in all other ports, the Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura, Illig.) is frequently seen. It is called by the Spaniards Gallinazo á cabéza colorada (red-headed vulture.) Farther in the interior of the country it is frequently seen, though there it is less common than the black gallinazo (Cathartes fœtens, Illig.) The colour of the former is dark brownish-black; the unplumed head and throat are red; the throat is full of wrinkles and warts. The latter is very like it in size and colour, only the head and neck are greyish-black. These birds are the size of a turkey-cock; but they are lanker and more angular in form. The black-headed gallinazo is inactive, heavy, and seldom flies far. When seeking food he hops about on the ground in short regular springs. When he wishes to move faster forward, he helps himself with his wings, but without flying. Its cry is seldom heard, and never long continued. At noon, sometimes from sixty to eighty of these birds perch themselves on the tops of the houses or on the ad

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joining walls, and with the heads under the wing they all go to roost. They are extremely voracious, and devour every sort of animal substance they can find, however filthy it may be. They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about among men and cattle in the most populous places. The Turkey vulture is far more lively, and its movements are more light. It flies faster and continues longer on the wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is, however, more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited islands. The female lays three or four whitish eggs, which are hatched in February and March. The common gallinazo usually builds its nest on the tops of houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays three or four eggs, which are whitish brown and speckled, and are hatched in the same months as the eggs of the Turkey vulture.-Tschudi.

THE WORD OF GOD'S PATIENCE. LET all the churches know what the word of God's patience is, and observe and keep the same; for, saith our Saviour to the church of Philadelphia, "Because thou hast kept the word of my patience, I will keep thee from the hour of temptation, which shall come upon all the world; and him that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple of my God, and he shall go no more out," Rev. iii. 10-12. He that overcometh is the same that keepeth the word of Christ's patience. What is that? In all times there is some truth, which is the trying, suffering truth. In Luther's time, the doctrine of justification by faith alone was the word of God's patience; in queen Mary's time, that truth which opposed transubstantiation was the word of God's patience; in Athanasius's time, the doctrine of Christ's Deity was the word of Christ's patience. There is always some truth or other, the profession and owning whereof saith, "Here is the patience of the saints." Now if the churches keep that word, and overcome in the keeping of it, the Lord Christ will make every member of them as a pillar in the temple of God, that shall go no more out.-William Bridge.

[Is not the truth that opposes baptismal regeneration "the word of God's patience" now?]

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Fire place in an English Baronial Hall and other large Apartments. HOUSES OF THE OLDEN TIME.

No. I.

AN elaborate delineation of the

"Halles ful heygh, and houses ful noble,

Chambers with chymnes, and chapels gaye," in which our fathers resided, would be more suited for the architect or the antiquarian than for the general reader. Still, a sketch of their general domestic arrangements will be not less interesting than improving.

The whole art of building, according to certain proportions and rules, was determined and regulated by various circumstances. In its early history it appears rude in the extreme; but it is remarkable, that in all countries it assumed a character suited to meet the wants of the people. The wooden hut was the first type or model of architecture; and the Greeks, working upon it, transferred to stone the forms of an assemblage of carpentry; giving rise to the orders of architecture which are, at this day, the ornaments of our buildings. The first trees driven into the ground, for the purpose of bearing a covering for shelter, were the precursors of the insulated columns of the portico of a temple: and to other objects equally simple we trace the various details of this interesting and most useful art.

The early baronial mansions of this country were adapted to the character of the times; and much of the restless and warlike disposition of the people might

be learned, from the remains of the constructions of those periods, even if history had been silent. Their principal strength consisted of a tower, or keep, the walls of which were from six to ten feet thick, the windows being only holes of one or two feet square, placed at irregular intervals. The floors were built on arches; the roof was flat, and battlemented with notches in the parapet, from which the retainers of the chieftain might defend themselves with instruments of war. Around, or in front of the main tower, there was usually a court-yard, protected by a high wall; the arched entrance was carefully sheltered by a portcullis, and frequently by a wet ditch.

As the times became less barbarous, the houses less resembled castles, but were still firmly constructed. They occupied a large space, in consequence of being of one ground-floor, often comprising a large square court. Many of the apartments, however, were occupied by the retainers of the household; and the remainder, which were more particularly the baron's habitation, comprised one great and several little rooms. great chamber contained the armory, while the weapons of his fathers, the gifts of friends, and the spoils of enemies, were disposed around the walls.

The

In the sixteenth century, the mansions of the nobility began to relax from fortified castles into social halls; and as selfdefence was not so immediately the object of thought, convenience took its

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