is removed, and piled in little heaps, which, having been allowed to dry, are set on fire. The ashes are afterward spread over the surface of the ground. Thus a crop is obtained; but it now becomes necessary to let the land lie fallow for fifteen or twenty years, after which the same process has to be gone through with, for the same result. carpets or embroidered cloths, on which, | method called "incineration." The sod as well as on the "cloth of estate"another appendage to this chamber in the royal mansions, and those of great officers—the family arms were displayed. Curtains were hung both at the doors and windows, ornamented with gold and silver, and perhaps paled with white damask and black velvet, or embroidered with heraldic badges; and the windowseats were covered with carpets, cushions, or pillows. The movable seats consisted of a few high-backed chairs, long forms, and joined stools, with cushions of gorgeous materials and workmanship. The fire-dogs, or "andyrons," were of silver, brass, or copper; but the more expensive articles were found in the houses of persons of the highest rank, and some of the more wealthy merchants, who, in these respects, yielded not to the noblest baron. THE FOREST OF ARDENNES. THE forest of Ardennes may be said to extend from the Meuse to the Moselle, covering the frontiers of Prussia, France, and Belgium, and encroaching considerably on the south-eastern angle of the latter kingdom. Nature has so marked its limits that the labour of man can produce but little effect in contracting them. Its size has scarcely diminished during 1900 years, for Cæsar states that it was in his time comprised between the Rhine and the frontiers of the Remi, the eastern boundary of which nation was the river Meuse. At that time only the borders of the forest were inhabited. Feeble tribes dwelt there, dependent upon the Treviri, who occupied the rich valley of the Moselle. This tract is, in general terms, one vast plateau of schist, its elevated tablelands sometimes attaining the height of 2000 feet above the level of the ocean. For the most part uninhabited and uncultivated, it presents only a dreary succession of heaths, bogs, and forests. Here and there, in the valleys where streams of water flow, a rich vegetation reigns, and humble villages appear at intervals. These little rivers sometimes present pleasing scenes; but, in general, a character of savage wildness or of mournful desolation prevails, as the forests alternate with the open heaths. The only cultivation of which these open tracts are susceptible, is by the The wood found on this ungrateful soil is principally oak, whose bark furnishes the material to many tanneries. The trees, though often close set, and of ample growth, do not, by their individual size, strike the eye of one who has seen the forests of the New World. In these regions the wild boar still roams at large, and wolves occasionally appear in winter. Deer, foxes, hares, and all kinds of game, abound, and the brooks are full of trout, and the little cray-fish, called "écrevisses," one of the greatest delicacies of the country. Such attractions are sufficient to entice many sportsmen to these solitudes, who generally establish their headquarters at St. Hubert. The Ardennais horses are hardy animals, some of them of no mean speed. In ancient times, they gave the Treviri the reputation of possessing the best mounted cavalry in Gaul. The mountain sheep of Luxembourg are of very small size, but yield a fine wool. The Walloons, who inhabit this province, as well as those of Liége, Namur, Hainaut, Eastern Limbourg, and a portion of Brabant, are a race distinct from the Flemings in character as well as in language. Their traits are thus given by an admirable writer, in a work now in the course of publication.* "This race is of Gaelic origin, as the names of cities, towns, and hamlets attest. It possesses the fire, the courage, the independence, the vivacity, the eloquence of the Celts; black eyes, brown hair, an acute expression of countenance. It gives to music and literature the preference over the arts of design. It would be wrong, nevertheless, to consider it as completely French; this race appears so to the Teutonic nations, but the French discover in it a Germanic air. Good humour, simplicity, the calm of individual passions, are traits which, in reality, distinguish this people no less than the Germans. The cold and observing glance of the Gaelic nations characterizes them not; they cannot, like these, read the * Alfred Michiels, Histoire de la Peinture Flamande et Hollandaise. ENGLISH HISTORY. depths of the soul; they cannot judge by | city of Liége vary in their pronunciation. anticipation, spy out sentiments, foresee —Pilgrimage to Treves. intentions. There is a mournful sadness beneath the gaiety of the French; a cruel indifference under their attractive manners. The affability of the Germans is more sincere, and the Walloons are like them in this respect. It is certain, moreover, that at the moment when the Roman invasion took place, Teutonic colonies occupied the entire soil of what now forms Belgium, after having expelled the original possessors belonging to the Gallic race. Almost all the institutions which governed the Walloon cities during the feudal epoch were of a German nature. In fine, the provinces just mentioned abound in legends, like the countries beyond the Rhine." This blending of the German and French character in that of the Walloons is very perceptible. To the order, morality, and industry of the one, they unite the gaiety and affability of the other. Even the lowest classes have a tincture of courtly manners: the peasants, when they meet, take off their hats to each other, with every demonstration of mutual respect. An old beggar, on whom I had bestowed a few centimes, offered me his snuff-box, with a recommendation of its contents, and another put my simplicity to the blush by addressing me with the title of "Monseigneur." The original Celtic base of the Walloon language was no doubt deeply modified by the German invasion. It afterward sustained a still more radical alteration from the all-pervading influence of Rome; and from the number of words of Latin origin thus introduced into it, it has a striking resemblance to the old French. It has, nevertheless, a character peculiar to itself, and an energy of expression is ascribed to it which cannot be imitated in other languages. The Walloon tongue can hardly be said to possess a literature. It boasts some chronicles written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; but at present, only popular songs and other trivial works appear in it. French has everywhere supplanted this language in polite society, and it is only heard in its purity in the villages and among the lower orders. A great defect and obstacle to its improvement is found in the variety of its dialects, which differ so widely one from another, that the Walloon of Hainaut is unintelligible to a Liégeois, and, strange to say, even the different quarters of the FRANCE was still in an unsettled state during the year 1797, or rather, public affairs were proceeding in the course usual in revolutions. The leaders in the councils acted in opposition to the directory, and threatened to deprive them of authority. There was evidently a change of the general feeling towards the old regimé. Many of the royalists returned, and the rites of the Romish religion were again administered. The revolutionary party saw their danger, the directors found that decisive measures were needful. Buonaparte gave them assistance, and prepared to march upon Paris, if needful. About 12,000 troops were collected round Paris, under Augereau, a general sent by Buonaparte. On Sept. 4th, 1797, these attacked the Tuileries, imprisoned some hundreds of the members of the councils, annulled the recent elections, which had been in favour of the royalists; and after a short trial, Pichegru, Barthelemy, and other leaders, suspected of favouring royalty, were transported to Cayenne, which was almost as certain death as the guillotine, though not so speedy. For a time there were indications of the return of the revolutionary fury, and numbers again emigrated in haste; but the result was, the establishment of military despotismthe invariable termination of popular excesses. Many others, among them editors or writers in more than forty popular journals, and a large number of priests, were also transported to Guiana. Strong measures of coercion were resorted to; the directors, as the creatures of the military power, were nominally the absolute rulers of France. During the short period of the prevalence of the moderate party in France, negotiations were resumed by lord Malmsbury, at Lisle. The French directory was not sincerely desirous of peace, unreasonable demands were made; and as soon as their political opponents were overcome, the English negotiator was ordered to leave France without delay. Pitt had been induced to make this attempt for peace, on finding that England would be left without an ally. During the campaign in Italy, Buonaparte was successful, and advanced, till he was within a week's march of Vienna. He was then in a perilous, though a commanding situation, and proposed a negotiation. The hazard of farther warfare, at that period, was great to both parties, perhaps most to the French; but, with their usual adroitness, they caused such alarm to the Austrian government, that terms of peace were ultimately settled, by the treaty of Campo Formio, in October, 1797, which were highly advantageous to France. The Netherlands, and all the countries as far as the Rhine, were given up to France; while the north of Italy was formed into a separate state, called the Cisalpine republic, evidently to be dependent on France. As a partial indemnity, Venice was delivered over to the emperor of Austria, after the French had overturned all its institutions, and plundered it of its ships, stores, and much other valuable property. This was a punishment for the slaying of some Frenchmen in a tumult excited by the agents of France. Such was the reward given to Venice for assisting the French! These proclaimers of liberty to all nations, deprived it of its freedom. This conduct of France towards Venice was more atrocious than that of the great potentates towards Poland. The invasion of England was threatened more than ever. Britain was now in a most critical state, left without an ally, spent, and apparently exhausted by warfare-while the military power of France had risen to a gigantic height. But the state of the public feeling in England had improved. The horrors of the French revolution had opened the eyes of the people to the dangers of revolutionary proceedings. Democratical tendencies were evidently much abated, and those of the loyalists were much strengthened. What had passed in France during the last four or five years had a salutary effect upon many, by awakening them to their danger; thus rendering them more than ever opposed to revolutionary principles; while Fox and the leaders of the opposition made frequent efforts to embarrass the government-but in vain; and it was a relief, when they declared their resolution to abandon their useless opposition, and for a time withdrew from attendance in parliament. At this time, the loyal feeling of the nation was shown, by a large sum being raised, for a voluntary contribution to the government, amounting to a million and a half of pounds sterling; even children and servants coming forward, with their small but willing offerings. The most sincere and real friends of freedom have learned to dread popular excesses, and are now the more anxious to check tyranny in every form, as by oppression it in the end always promotes revolutionary outbreaks. A still more serious danger was at hand, from the state of Ireland. The policy of England towards the sister island had been most erroneous from the first, when the course pursued was to treat it as a conquered country, without seeking to form a solid union, or to connect the interests of both parties. Thus popery being fully established in England in the twelfth century, it was forced upon the natives of Ireland. And after being thus made Romanists, when the Reformation took place, the results were also forced upon the land, but without any adequate efforts to enlighten the mass of the nation, or to establish a scriptural faith_on_scriptural principles, in the manner England was enlightened. Popery was left to occupy the minds of the Irish people, without any systematic attempts to diffuse the truth-while much was done to exasperate their feelings, and to render the existence of the numerous priesthood dependent on the maintenance of those feelings. Nor was the system pursued in secular affairs wiser. When, during the American war, and after its termination, it was found necessary to remove many grievances, this was not done in a prudent or conciliatory manner, but grudgingly, and too late to prevent painful and angry feelings. The success of the French revolution inspirited the popular leaders of Ireland; and the Society of United Irishmen secretly entered into treaty with the French rulers. Lord Edward Fitzgerald was one of the most active in those proceedings. Some were tried for seditious practices, but alleged that they were only seeking parliamentary reform. All farther concessions were now refused, while the outcry for "Catholic Emancipation," as it was called, became general. This was a demand that all penal disabilities which pressed upon the Romanists should be removed: many existed, which in truth were too severe; and though seldom, or not at all enforced, they placed the professors of that faith in a very disadvantageous position, and rendered them exposed to legal proceedings. The conduct of the leaders of the United Irishmen was decidedly treasonable. They organized a union throughout the country, by which half a million of men were ready to obey their requirements at any time. Tone was then sent to arrange for an invasion by a French army. He was supported by Connor and lord Edward Fitzgerald, who proceeded to the continent in June, 1796, passing through London, where there is some reason to believe he did not conceal his errand from Fox, and other leaders of the democratic party. In giving evidence subsequently for O'Connor, Fox spoke of his intimacy with lord Edward, who had been desirous to proceed to France on some private business, and that he had advised him not to enter the French territory, and he stopped at Basle. O'Connor arranged with Hoche, for the sailing of the expedition in December, already mentioned; it failed, but the design was not laid aside. The Irish leaders again sent emissaries to Paris; other plans were settled, which principally depended upon the Dutch fleet; but that armament, when it sailed, was destroyed by admiral Duncan. The naval victories of 1797, it is clear, prevented the French expeditions upon Ireland. There, all was now ready for an insurrection; but if the United Irishmen were prepared, so were their violent opponents, the Orangemen, who were equally determined to support the existing system, or Protestant ascendancy, as it was called. The difficulties of the English government were increased, by the animosities between these two violent parties-often personal on each side. In February, 1798, O'Connor and two companions were arrested at Margate, on their way to France. Treason able papers were found on one of them, a priest named O'Coigley, who was tried at Maidstone, and was executed. O'Connor was acquitted; but remained in custody, while the government prepared to stop the treasonable preparations in Ireland, being fully apprised of them by one deep in the conspiracy. The leaders were arrested in Dublin. The government would have allowed lord Edward Fitzgerald to escape, but he would not; when seized, he mortally wounded one of the magistrates, and died a few days afterwards, of wounds received in the scuffle he had uselessly provoked. This was a few days before the time appointed for the general rising, but did not prevent it. On the 23rd of May, the rebels took arms in several places; but at Carlow, and in some other parts, they were dispersed. In the south-east they were more successful. Dublin nearly fell into their hands. Wexford was taken by a large body, headed by a priest, named Murphy, and an encampment was formed on Vinegarhill, a strong position in the neighbourhood. The rebellion now assumed the same character as the former risings and massacres by the Papists, which kept some discontented Protestants in the north from taking part in the revolt. Had it proceeded without an immediate check, there can be no doubt but that it would have surpassed even the memorable Irish massacre of 1641, in deeds of atrocity and blood. A large military force was in Ireland, and brought against the insurgents, on June 21st, at Vinegarhill, which was stormed: the rebels were soon put down in every direction. Their proceedings during the month they had been in force, sufficiently proved what would have been the dreadful result, had the designs of the leaders been fully carried out. The Protestants were to be exterminated, and the massacre of more than a hundred in cold blood, who were deliberately piked in succession, on the bridge at Wexford, and the burning of more than that number, including women, in a barn at Scullabogue, with denunciations of the like fate to every heretic, showed that Popery, when rampant, was unchanged. A mother threw her infant from the burning pile, hoping to save its life, but the savages around tossed the child back into the flames! It is however gratifying to state, that many of the Romish gentry expressed their abhorrence of these proceedings, and offered to assist the government. Many Protestants were murdered, or suffered from acts of violence, in various parts of the country; and as martial law prevailed, numerous acts of severity against those suspected of being rebels, marked the proceedings of the military and the Orangemen. From these, it is to be regretted, several moderate and quiet men suffered unduly-but such are the constant results of intestine commotions; and these, in this case, were stimulated by bigotry and superstition on the part of the insurgents. Among their principal leaders were priests, some of whom pretended to be endowed with miraculous powers; while they required every Protestant to turn Papist, and to be re-baptized, as his only chance for mercy. Happily the French were not able to avail themselves of this sad state of affairs THE MAHOGANY TREE. in Ireland. In August, about a thousand the strides of insubordination, irreligion, men were landed near Killala; they infidelity! But look not only at France, marched into the country, but they were look at home, where they proceed with not joined, as they expected, by any an aggravated guilt. We will mainorganized force; and in a short time sur- tain Christianity,' says one party: but rendered to an overwhelming force under what Christianity? A solemn farce, in lord Cornwallis, the viceroy, by which which the work, and word, and Spirit of they were surrounded. They expressed Christ, are made void and of no effect by "We will have no deep contempt and disgust towards their your traditions. Irish allies, while the result must have Christianity,' says the other party. The shown the directory the folly of listening abuses of Christianity which we have to the Irish traitors. Another squadron observed, lead us to determine that it was sent shortly after, nearly the whole can be of no use!' No wonder that the of which was captured, without being Lord has a controversy with Judah, and able to land any troops. Tone was taken will punish Jacob according to his ways. in one of the ships; he was tried for He therefore is not rightly disposed, who treason and condemned-but murdered does not humbly bear the rod, mark who himself to avoid a public execution. A hath appointed it, consider why it is few of those concerned in the late rebel-appointed, and personally depart from lion also suffered; others were trans- iniquity, while he engages himself to ported or exiled-but much lenity was oppose its effects." shown. Every reflecting mind must execrate the conduct of the Irish traitors, and feel for the numbers who suffered from listening to their visionary projects, or from the efforts to carry them into execution. The proceedings of England towards Ireland had doubtless been unwise and oppressive, but these were already much improved; and a steady course of firm, well-regulated measures, by the Irish leaders, would have been far more successful, and more consonant with their duties. Awful, indeed, was the responsibility they incurred; their conduct was directly opposed to the scriptural precept of patient perseverance in well-doing; while the conduct of the French, to every nation with which they had fraternized, was quite enough to show the Irish, that any alliance with France would only make their situation far worse than it had been. It must also be stated, that after the rebellion had been put down, the government by no means pursued the leaders in a vindictive spirit; the examples made were not numerous, and conciliatory measures were resorted to in several respects. The amount of claims by the loyalists, for damages suffered in this short outbreak of rebellion, was 800,000l. The number of those in England who deeply felt the dangers and evils which pressed on the country increased. Their views were expressed in a sermon preached before a military association at this period, by the Rev. R. Cecil, who observed, The times form a sufficient apology for every effort which a minister, as well as a soldier, can make. Look at Its THE Swietenia mahogoni is one of the most beautiful among intertropical trees. Its trunk is often forty feet in height, and six feet in diameter; and it divides into so many massy arms, and throws the shade of its glossy foliage over so great an extent of surface, that few more magnificent objects are to be met with in the vegetable world. summit is wide and spreading, sub-evergreen, and adorned with abruptly-pinnate, shining leaves. The flowers, which are produced in handsome spikes not unlike those of the lilac, are whitish, sometimes reddish or saffron-colour, and are succeeded by fruit or capsules of an oval form, about the size of a turkey's egg. The fruit ripens in early summer, bursts into five parts, and discloses its winged seeds, which are soon after dispersed by the winds; some, falling into the crevices of rocks, strike root, then creeping out on the surface, seek other chinks or crevices, re-enter, and swell to such a size and strength, that, at length, the rocks are forced asunder, to admit the deeper penetration of the roots; and in this manner, in process of time, increase to large trees. The mahogany is a native of the warmest parts of America, and grows plentifully in Cuba, Jamaica, and Hayti or St. Domingo. There are also many trees found on other West India Islands, on the Bahamas, and in South Florida. It was formerly very abundant in Ja |