THE REFORMERS BEFORE THE REFORMATION. No. XVI. THE second flight of the pope added fresh strength to the council and the emperor. The cardinals, finding no farther support in a leader who was destitute of courage, and unequal to any resistance, perceived that, by isolating themselves, they would complete their own destruction, and knew that they should be stronger, by resisting in the council, than while intriguing at a distance. They found themselves overcome, and could only try to render their defeat less disastrous. The cardinals of Cambray and St. Mark must not be included amongst those wholly devoted to the interests of the Romish church. Then appeared what can be done by skill against strength, by persevering inaction against active perseverance. If, on the one hand, it was important to the Romish party that the cardinals should be present in the council, in order to defend it; on the other hand, it was not less important to the emperor, and the party desirous of reformation, to associate the cardinals with them in their efforts, to bind them to their acts. For this purpose, Sigismund employed entreaties, caresses, and menaces; his firmness was triumphant. Some stormy debates took place in the preparatory meetings which were held between the emperor, the cardinals, and the deputies of the nation, and which preceded the fourth general session. In these meetings, where the articles were discussed which were afterwards to be submitted to the council, the cardinals obtained, that the pope should not be accused of schism and heresy on account of his flight; they asked much more, but without success, and the greater part pledged themselves to the emperor, to be present at the approaching session. The minds of men were prepared to expect one of those events, the results of which resound through future ages. On one side, the emperor, and the great majority of the prelates of the three nations, persuaded that the pope must be overthrown before the church could be saved, were inclined to give the popedom one of those terrible blows, after which it might indeed rise again, but from which it could not recover. On the other part, the Italians were without a head, and appeared to be divided. They dared not openly rally were for him who had abandoned himself, yet they were reluctant to suffer a cause to fall, they had so long regarded as their own. The greater part were disposed to favour the cardinals. The latter, with the exception of the two who Frenchmen, D'Ailly and Pilastre, formed one united body, actuated by one will. Their interests were closely bound to the aggrandizement of the papal see, which was now to be humbled. Here an important question as to religion arose, and doubtless many were influenced by lofty motives, in their resistance to the emperor and the three nations; they trembled at the danger to which their church was exposed, if the throne of St. Peter, which they regarded as its firmest stay, should be shaken. A small number, including Jean de Brogin, the cardinal de Viviers, the usual president of the council, kept aloof, under pretext of sickness, that they might avoid increasing, by their presence, the authority of measures which they disliked, and in which they thought they could not stay. The others were more hopeful; they were present in the assembly, with an intention of protesting against the acts that were too violent, thus to enfeeble or postpone them. Their calculations were not unfounded. The fourth general session was opened on March 30th, 1415. The cardinal Jordan des Ursins presided. The emperor was there, and with him all the princes and royal ambassadors. The mass was said by the patriarch of Antioch, and immediately after the religious ceremonies, Zabarelli, the cardinal of Florence, rose, and read aloud the articles which the nations, in their preparatory meeting, had resolved to adopt. They began by stating, that the sacred Synod of Constance, legally assembled in the name of the Holy Ghost, forming a general council, representing the catholic church militant, has received immediately from Jesus Christ a power, which every person, whatever may be his state or dignity, even if papal, is bound to obey, in all that concerns the faith, the extirpation of the schism, and the reformation of the church in its head and members. Zabarelli read with a loud voice, but when he came to the last-mentioned clause, which spoke of the reformation of the head of the church, he stopped. He wanted either power or will to finish it; he also omitted two other articles, and maintained that these had been added against T the general opinion. The first related to the degree of liberty the pope had enjoyed at Constance; and the second, to the punishment which his obstinate disobedience to the council had incurred. Historians are not agreed as to all that passed on this occasion. It is unknown whether Zabarelli, in this, acted voluntarily, and of his own accord, or whether he only performed what had been previously resolved on, in the secret council of the cardinals. The latter opinion seems probable, from the manner in which they afterwards sought to turn this opinion to their account. Thus the results of the fourth session were annulled, which had occasioned the cardinals so much dread. In the midst of the agitation the assembly broke up, but the defeat of the Romish party was only delayed a few days. The cardinals imprudently demanded that the articles omitted by Zabarelli should be again proposed for deliberation in the private assembly of the nations, before they were presented to the public session. It was only an endeavour to temporise; they forgot that such measures are more likely to irritate, than to tire out an incontrollable power, and that the exigency increases with the feeling of increased strength. This they soon had to acknowledge. Their demand was rejected; and it was resolved, that in the following session, the same articles should be again discussed, with increased force and precision. Such were the preparations for the fifth, and most memorable session of the council. In this, as in that which preceded it, the cardinal des Ursins presided. Eight cardinals were present; the emperor and the princes also assisted in its deliberations. The bishop of Posnania read the following articles : First article. The council of Constance, lawfully assembled in the name of the Holy Ghost, and forming a general council which represents the catholic church militant, has received immediately from Jesus Christ a power, to which every person, whatever may be his state or dignity, even a pope, is bound to obey, in all that concerns the faith, the extirpation of the present schism, and the general reformation of the church of God, in its head and in its members. Second article. Every man, whatever may be his condition or dignity, even if papal, who shall obstinately refuse to obey the decrees which this council, or any other general council lawfully as sembled, has already made, or shall make hereafter, upon the matters above named, unless he returns to subjection, shall be liable to a proportionate penance, and punished according to his deserts, recourse being had, if necessary, to other methods appointed by law. Third article. The council forbids John XXIII. to transfer elsewhere the court of Rome, its offices and public officers, or to compel them, either directly or indirectly, to follow him, without the consent of the council; ordaining, that if he has already attempted, or should hereafter attempt this, his censures, menaces, and bulls of fulmination shall be absolutely null, and that the said officers may, with full liberty, exercise their functions at Constance, so long as the council shall last. Fourth article. All the translations of prelates to other sees, the revocations, acts, and sentences, passed, or to be passed, by the said pope, to the prejudice of the council and its members, since the beginning of the council, shall be absolutely null, and are actually set aside. Fifth article. John XXIII., as well as the prelates and all the other members of the council, have enjoyed, and still enjoy, perfect liberty, and nothing to the contrary has come to the knowledge of the council, as they can testify before God and man. All these articles were unanimously adopted, after which the emperor announced, that his troops should march against Frederick of Austria, and even offered, if it were the wish of the council, to go to Laufenberg in person, and bring back the pope, in spite of the archduke. Sigismund received the applause and thanks of the council. The acts of the fifth session of the council of Constance have divided the whole body of professing Catholics into two parts. The Gallican church has always defended these acts, justly regarding them as the grounds of her privileges; the church of Rome, properly so called, has persisted equally in decrying them, as pernicious, and dangerous to the authority of the successor of St. Peter, and, as such, null and faulty. The most devoted adherents of the Roman church afterwards tried to invalidate the authority from whence these acts proceeded. They refused to acknowledge the council of Constance as a general council, although its claim to that title was preferable to the council of Pisa, on which they were obliged to bestow it. For to attack the authority of the council of Pisa was to invalidate the election of John XXIII., the successor of Alexander v., who was elected in that council. To all the characteristics of a general council possessed by the first, the council of Constance joined that of a canonical convocation; it had been assembled by a pope legally elected, and its decisions were all confirmed by another, who was also legally appointed pontiff. Finally, although this controversy has given birth to innumerable volumes, and is not yet exhausted, it must be aknowledged that the whole of Christendom admitted these celebrated decrees of the fifth session, at the period when they were passed, and, among all the decisions of the general councils, there are few which might not be contested, if these are called in question. Assured of its strength, the council vigorously urged on its advantages in the next, the sixth session, held on April 15th. It had decided that the pope was bound to obey its decrees. Now was to be considered how he was to be reduced to submission, and it showed as much firmness in execution as in threatening. A form was first prepared for the abdication of the pontificate. It was agreed that this should be presented to John XXIII., and deputies were named for each nation, who, with the cardinals of St. Mark and Florence, were charged to convey to the pope the decrees of the council. At length, by the seventh session, the pope was cited to appear within nine days, to perform his oath relating to the extinctions of the schism, and the reformation of the church in its head and its members. Also, to justify himself from the accusations of heresy, schism, simony, mal-administration of church property, and of other heavy crimes. He was told that a safe-conduct was granted to him and his adherents, by which they should be secured whilst attending the council, as far as justice would permit. The pontiff was no longer at Laufenburg. In his fright he had left the refuge precipitately, to shelter himself within the ramparts of Fribourg. But the decrees of the council had struck his partizans with terror; the imperial troops met with little difficulty; the archduke was affrighted at his own boldness, and inclined to submission. At length the deputies, charged with the orders from the council, drew near to Fribourg. John XXIII., who dreaded them more than the emperor's soldiers, retreated before them, carrying with him, throughout his wandering and uncertain course, the lasting disgrace of the papacy, borne from place to place by a spirit of restless uneasiness, seeking repose and safety even in the solitude of forests, and nowhere finding peace, or an asylum. THE FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. No. II. A TALE FOR THE YOUNG. DURING the residence of the five Parsees among us, they wrote a volume, containing an account of the manner in which they spent their time in England, and giving their opinions of the people, the climate, the different institutions of the country, and the various and novel scenes which they saw. It was written for their countrymen at home, and, although published by a London bookseller, was not intended immediately for English readers, and has had little circulation in this country. It is an unpretending narrative, and is chiefly interesting, as showing the impression which England and the English would make on an intelligent oriental visitor. The book is marked throughout by a grateful and amiable disposition, a readiness to be pleased, a slowness to take offence, and a polite courtesy to all. These Parsees left the shores of Bombay, on the 29th of March, 1838, and entered the English Channel, and marked with joy the Eddystone Lighthouse, on the 20th of August. From thence they proceeded to the Thames, and the following remarks occur, on their first sight of the river of our metropolis, "Here," say they, "we were greatly surprised to see the amazing number of ships going out and pouring into the Thames, and steamers every now and then running backwards and forwards; we cannot convey to our countrymen any idea of this immense number of vessels, and the beauty of the sight. You will see colliers, timber-ships, merchantmen, steamers, and many other crafts from all parts of the world, hastening, as it were, to seek refuge in a river, which is but a stream compared to the Ganges and the Indus, or the still larger rivers of America." Nor was their surprise less, when they entered the crowded streets of our metropolis. "It was nearly dusk," write the Parsees, "when we arrived at London-bridge, notwithstand ing which, an immense number of persons flocked round us, to view our costume; for, in addition to our two selves, we were accompanied by our friend, and also by two of our domestics; and five individuals in the Parsee costume collected quite a mob, through which it was difficult to pass to our carriage; we think quite a thousand persons were congregated together. We proceeded through the city of London to the Portland Hotel, where arrangements for our reception had been previously made; and from the immense number of people, and vehicles of every description, which we saw hurrying along, apparently in great haste, and from the increasing noise, we were apprehensive that some public commotion had taken place, or that there was some grand spectacle to be witnessed, towards which they were thus hastening. But yet it appeared so odd, that there was as much haste and desire | to get forward in those who moved eastward, as in those who were progressing westward. Every street down which we looked, appeared to be pouring out countless multitudes to swell the throng, and we were lost in conjecture, as to what this bustle could possibly mean; but when we were afterwards informed that this constant tide of human beings was to be witnessed every day, for twelve or fourteen hours, we were, indeed, lost in amazement, at the myriads that must exist in London, to furnish out of doors such an exhibition of people." The rumbling of carriages, making a noise so different from the sounds of oriental cities, must have almost deafened the strangers on their first arrival. "One of the things that struck us with astonishment," say they, "was the immense number of carriages of different descriptions, that are to be made use of in London for conveyance of passengers from one part to another; and the largest, which are called omnibuses, first claim our attention. A carriage of this description is in the possession of Framjee Cowasjee, esq., at Bombay, which, we believe, he ordered to be made in England, for his own use, a few years ago. Where they all came from, where they were all going, where the people could be found to fill them, how the owners, drivers, and conductors were to be paid, seemed a mystery to us; and we diligently sought for information upon this subject." Then came the delightful wonder of the rail roads-all so new and strange to the inquiring travellers. "We travelled to a place,' say they, "called Slough, twenty-five miles in fifty minutes. Only think, within an hour, seated quietly in a beautiful carriage, we were twenty-five miles from London! We did not feel that we were passing so rapidly through the country when we looked at distant objects; but when we looked upon anything near to us, we but saw it, and it vanished; and when the other train of carriages passed us, it was almost as if a flash of lightning had gone by-we could not distinguish any one of the carriages." London afforded great delight to the Parsees, by many of its public and benevolent institutions, as well as its exhibitions of art and science. They visited, during their stay, all the popular places of our great city, and its neighbourhood. The British Museum, the Houses of Parliament, St. Paul's Cathedral, the East India House, Windsor Castle, and Frogmore Lodge, all received due attention; nor were the markets, the parks, the exhibitions of art at the Lowther Arcade, nor the waxwork figures of Madame Tussaud, mentioned in their journal without praise. Several pages are devoted to describing our bazaars, where the Parsees were pleased to find, that a person may walk about as long as he pleases, without being importuned to purchase, and where waxen flowers were to be seen, "so natural that you cannot tell them from nature." They much enjoyed their visit to the "Bluecoat School," and give in their narrative a very particular account of the manner in which it is conducted. But, perhaps, very few of my young readers will agree with their opinion of the dress of the boys, which we generally regard as an antiquated and untasteful relic of other days. "The boys," they remark, wear a sort of livery, consisting of a long blue coat, reaching to the ankles, and fastened round the waist with a leather strap; a yellow worsted petticoat worn underneath, yellow stockings, and a small black cap, which they very rarely wear: and we have often wondered, when we saw the boys walking the streets of London, with their heads uncovered, how they escaped catching cold. The uniform, we think, is very picturesque, and more so than the ordinary dress of England; there is something very pleasing to the eye, and indicating 'gravity and seriousness in it." Soon after their arrival in England, the Parsees placed themselves under the instruction of a clergyman residing at Egham, in Buckinghamshire, and they retained a grateful recollection of his kindness and instructions. They afterwards spent many months at Chatham, in order to learn more fully the mode of building steam-ships; and they looked upon the government dockyard there as their professional school. While pursuing the means of improvement, they had opportunities of familiarly visiting several English families, and passed much of their time in the society of well-educated English people. They could visit only at houses of which the masters would allow the Parsee servants to make use of the kitchen to prepare their meals, and they were accustomed to carry with them to their friends' houses the various utensils necessary for preparing and serving up their food. During the course of their voyage, they had often expressed to each other many apprehensions, lest they should meet with some difficulties in England, in procuring private apartments at the inns, where they might perform their devotions, and where their own servants could prepare their food, according to their wishes; but at the Portland Hotel, where they stayed on their first arrival, they soon found that they would meet with no opposition to their desires in this respect. In private society, most were willing to oblige men so unassuming, and so ready to value the smallest act of kindness; and the travellers gratefully record, that in no instance were their religious services interrupted or ridiculed. It would, indeed, have shown a great want of feeling in any Englishman who should have offered any impediment to the performance of what the Parsees considered as worship. If, indeed, their friends could have directed them to the true faith of God, if they could have led them, from an ignorant worship of the Supreme Being, to an enlightened knowledge of God, as he is revealed in the gospel of Christ, then, indeed, they would have been the means of conferring on the fire-worshippers the greatest blessings which human beings can receive. But though the Parsees experienced generally but little inconvenience from their peculiar customs, yet one occasion presented a difficulty connected with them. The thirtieth of September is regarded by them as their new year's day, and the travellers were accustomed to spend this day in great festivity and rejoicings, and had planned that a tour which they were going to make, to visit the most celebrated naval arsenals in England, should begin about that time. "We had previously," say they, "obtained permission from the Honourable Court, and were now preparing for our journey, when, to our great dismay, one of the domestics became very ill, and we had the misfortune, on the day of the ship-launch, to see the other, and our friend, share the same misfortune. The following was our new year's day, and we were in the hope of enjoying it, as well as we could, in a strange country; but this unforeseen circumstance marred all our pleasures, and instead of festivity and mirth, which we always have on the occasion, our house had more the appearance of an hospital." They add, with great simplicity, "We two were left to manage our meals as well as we could, and this we could but ill perform; in addition to which, we had to look after the invalids, which, indeed, we never did before in our lives. misfortune put us strongly in mind of home, and we could not help thinking how comfortable and happy we should have been if we had been in Bombay that day, and how much we might have enjoyed it in the bosom of our families; however, we contented ourselves with the anticipation of being at home that day twelvemonth." It was a fortnight before the illness of the party was sufficiently removed, to allow of their commencing the anticipated tour. This The Parsees, of course, found the climate of England very cold; but, by the precaution of wearing warm clothing under their loose flowing robes, they had generally good health while they remained here. They were much pleased with the varieties of natural appearances, afforded by our change of seasons, and their remarks on the peculiarities of the different months are often amusing. Of the opening_month of our year, they remark : "In January, usually, the ground is covered with snow. In January, 1841, we saw it very many inches deep, completely changing the appearance of the country; and, oh, how beautifully white it makes every place! When the sun, which in England, in that month, has not much power, shines upon it, nothing we can say can convey an |