like worn-out instruments, when the hard and painful work for which they were commissioned had been performed. And there will always be dead sufficient to bury their dead. struggles of fair enterprise and rising talent. The so doing was one main cause of the French Revolution. Under these confused views, the British government came to the conclusion It was however evident, that the old that war was inevitable, and began preruling powers of France, with those that parations, after the imperfect manner succeeded, had been utterly destroyed, then customary. The militia had been and that confusion increasingly prevailed called out, on December 1st, 1792; and there. It was apparent, that a similar on the same day, the principal merchants desire for destruction actuated many in and bankers of the metropolis assembled the British islands, who sought not to at Merchant Taylors' Hall, when a loyal correct manifest evils, but to overturn declaration, setting forth their attachthe whole framework of society; while, ment to the constitution, as settled by on the other hand, those in power, fear- the revolution in 1688, was adopted: it ful of this overturn, clung the more was signed by several thousands of the closely to existing evils, though feeling most influential of the commercial world. that they were wrong. They feared lest Parliament assembled on the 13th, when by consenting to the removal even of the king's speech strongly adverted to what was mischievous, they should let go the danger resulting from French printhe many advantages and benefits pos- ciples, and the manifest indications of the sessed by the great mass of the nation, neighbouring nations being affected by and which marked the wide difference the schemes evidently entertained by between England and France. Thus the leading party in France. The existeach party became more injuriously te- ence of political societies in England, nacious of its own peculiar views; the more or less influenced by similar prinleading statesmen were not able to see, ciples, and seeking a thorough change in that, by steady and timely removal of ac- the constitution, was notorious. This knowledged abuses, they would really was adverted to in the House of Comstrengthen social order; while those, who mons; but Fox derided all that had been desired that such evils should be removed, done, with all that was apprehended by were angered, by the refusal of all altera- the government, and rejoiced in the tion, and induced to contemplate stronger triumphs of France. The division that measures than could safely be resorted had taken place among the Whigs was to. The old parties of Whig and Tory manifest from his being answered by had now lost their distinctive principles; Windham, once, like Burke, in the oppomany of the former decidedly opposed sition, but now, with Burke, a firm supthe French Revolution, and all innova-porter of Pitt, and of the policy adopted tions or changes. The principles avowed by the British rulers. by the leaders of that revolution placed the upper and lower classes of society, throughout Europe, in opposition to each other. In England, the influential body of the people, the middle rank, was divided. At first, the greater portion took the popular view; but, as atrocities prevailed in France, a contrary feeling became predominant in England. It has been well observed, that the political divisions of 1793 never were forgotten by those who were of an age to feel their influence, or, it may be added, by those who shortly after became so. Burke early characterized the principles of Jacobinism as "the revolt of the enterprising talent of a country against its property." Well is it for a nation, when the possessors of property do not take the mistaken view of endeavouring to retain that property in vicious and incapable hands, against the legitimate The general feeling of the leading men of the nation was shown by the numbers that voted on the address; two hundred and ninety voting for it, and only fortyfour with Fox, who still, however, stood firm to the views he had declared. Burke rightly denounced the system of republican France as akin to that of Mohammed going forth with strange doctrines, and seeking to proselyte thereto by the sword. The debates in parliament at this period well deserve attentive consideration, but they cannot be recapitulated in this brief sketch. They mainly turned upon the question of peace or war. may be well to state, as the result of documents now accessible, that while it must be admitted that the British minister did not seek to maintain peace at that period, as he might have done, yet it is equally evident, that the French were determined to have war; and that no It from entering upon a career of reckless aggression. concessions would have prevented them | French rulers on the previous day; and the certainty of war was rejoiced in by the convention, while it also pleased the upper classes in this country. Fox had declared that France sought not to extend its dominion; but, on January 31st, measures were taken for declaring Belgium to be a part of the French republic; and, on February 1st, war was declared against England, by the unanimous vote of the convention. As early as 1791, a French naval commander in the East Indies had resisted a British officer, in his desire to inspect some merchantmen, apparently conveying stores to Tippoo Sultaun, although that search was according to treaty. He fired upon the British frigate, an action followed, the Frenchman surrendered, and was released. The British ambassador at Paris was repeatedly insulted; and while the English government at that time reduced its forces, the French republic increased their naval armament, which could only be designed against Britain. The French leaders avowed that peace was out of the question; they also declared, that their anticipated career of conquest was to extend over the world. In November, their convention had issued a decree, declaring that the French were ready to assist the people of any nation who would rebel against their own government, and refused to restrict this to the nations with whom they were actually at war; while some of the English, who maintained republican principles, openly fraternized with the most violent of the French democrats. The destruction of royalty throughout Europe was openly avowed, while it was determined to seize the Scheldt, as a naval station for France, in defiance of treaties to the contrary. It is thus evident that the French were determined on war; but many have thought it would have been desirable for the British government to have delayed hostilities, though at the price of abstaining from interference in behalf of the allied powers of the continent. At that time there appeared strong reasons for aiding their confederacy; but now it is seen that all those efforts were likely to be ineffectual: that each of those powers was selfishly bent upon its own particular interests; so that the strength of England was of no avail, when exerted to support a system without coherence, which was sure to be overturned. This, however, was not discerned at the time: the great body of the English nation was bent on war, from the opinion that nothing but war could save Britain from republican principles; and, as the French arms prevailed, Pitt considered that, under the existing circumstances, no other course was to be pursued. There can be no doubt, but that even if he had sought peace, the French, in their infuriate state, would have forced him to war; this feeling having been increased, if not originally brought on, by the unjust attempt of the allies to compel the French nation to restore the full despotic royalty just shaken off. The allied powers had also resolved, not only to compel France to submit to that government, and to compensate for the expenses incurred, but to retain such portions of France as might weaken it from future attempts upon the neighbouring powers. This ill-judged and injurious proceeding was resolved upon, at a great council of the allied leaders, held at Antwerp, in July, 1793, which obliged prince Coburg, the allied commander, to recall a manifesto, issued by him a few days before, renouncing all views of conquest, and more than re-establishing the constitution of 1791. Talleyrand had been sent to England with a French deputation, instructed to foment discontent between the people and the government. This mission probably saved Talleyrand during the agitations that preceded the death of Louis. He was denounced, and was for some time an exile in England-one of the many serpents at that time fostered and protected by her-while full proof was given to Pitt, that the French rulers would not promote any pacific measures, although their representative still declared that they were anxious to maintain peace with England! This declaration the English ministers treated as of no value, and declined to acknowledge the French republic. The negotiations were conducted by lord Grenville, afterwards by lord Auckland, at Paris. The result was unsatisfactory. On January 24th, 1793, the death of Louis xvI. being then known, Chauvelin, the French plenipotentiary, was directed to leave England. He had been actually recalled by the It is indeed but too evident, that although more comprehensive views are now entertained, and wiser policies have been pursued than prevailed at that pc riod, still the time is not yet arrived, when statesmen will learn to act upon scriptural principles, leaving events with Him who ruleth all things in heaven and earth. The nations were to undergo a sifting, yet ultimately the destroyer was to be stayed in his course. Britain was to take a prominent part in these proceedings, and therefore was permitted to interfere. Preparations for war were made, but on a very inadequate scale of expenditure. Enough was done to commence a series of national embarrassments, but not enough to create a force adequate to stay the destroyer now let loose. Eight millions of pounds were borrowed, for the extra expenses of the year; the interruption of trade caused serious commercial embarrassments, though some few were already beginning to profit by warlike speculations; and the national hopes were excited, by the temporary failure of the French attempt upon Holland. Pitt considered that the revolutionary proceedings going forward in France must speedily exhaust that nation, so that the old order of things might ere long be re-established. He had no idea of the terrible energies that would be called forth. The campaign on the continent cannot here be noticed in detail. It opened by simultaneous attacks upon France on all sides, by armies amounting to 350,000 men. As to Flanders, after some fighting and negotiations, Dumourier, the French general, saved himself from the guillotine, by going over to the Austrians, having in vain endeavoured to promote a return to the constitution of 1791. Ostend was taken possession of by the English; the allied army was joined by the duke of York, with a small number of British troops a mistaken appointment- while the soldiers, and especially the officers, however brave, were not yet trained for actual warfare. Valenciennes was besieged and taken, after a regular siege, but there the success of the allies ended. An attack on Dunkirk was resolved on by the English government, to promote its own interests, but this failed. The whole of the allied force should have been concentrated, and pushed on towards Paris, while the French armies were disorganized, and not adequately recruited. But a selfish feeling induced the English government to insist upon a large force being turned aside for the siege of Dunkirk. This was a fatal error; it gave the French time to adopt energetic measures proposed by Carnot, who directed the war department. The French succeeded in relieving Dunkirk; the siege was raised. That failure, with the time lost before Valenciennes, enabled the republican government to collect and move forward an overwhelming force. This, although undisciplined and continually defeated, constantly presented new masses for resistance, which were beaten, till they became at last efficient soldiers. It was with difficulty the allies could retain Belgium. A conscription of twelve hundred thousand men had been enforced in France; all the old rules of warfare were set at nought, and failed before the republican energies. The efforts of the coalition had also been weakened, by the attention of Austria, Prussia, and Russia having been directed to the further partition of Poland. They were more eager to secure this acquisition than to press upon France; while the people of Europe, in general, were disgusted and alarmed at the rapacity of these monarchs. Not only was the attention of the king of Prussia thus distracted, but the national dislike between the Austrians and Prussians appeared; time and strength were wasted on the siege of Mayence; the French armies were disciplined into activity by terror; and, before winter, the French had again passed beyond their frontiers towards Germany. On the Spanish frontier little was done; but the English and Spanish fleets occupied Toulon. A counter-revolution in the south, early in the summer, extended to Lyons; it was supported from Piedmont, but Lyons was re-occupied before the winter, when the moderate republicans, as well as the royalists, were massacred by thousands in cold blood. At one time it was resolved gradually to destroy that city, and to exterminate the inhabitants. Hundreds of the best houses were actually pulled down. The most determined effort against the republicans was in La Vendée, the north-west district of France. That province was particularly fitted for resistance, by the number of its resident gentry, the influence of its priests, its local peculiarities, inclosures, bad roads-rendering communication difficult, and by the habits of the people-also from being open for succours by sea. The narrative of the Vendéen war, by La Rochejaquelin, is deeply interesting. At last the forces of the DISCOVERIES IN ASTRONOMY. republic prevailed, when all the suspected | are pointed out, they regard them with who did not escape were murdered and ignorant astonishment. To them the massacred. Thousands were thus de- evening sky is nothing but a scene of gay stroyed; but at Nantes they were shot confusion, in which they can discover no and drowned in masses. The common law beyond that of a periodical appearmodes of execution were not sufficiently ance above the horizon, nor do they conrapid to satisfy the human tigers engaged ceive any end suitable to the variety and therein. Of course, there was no attempt magnitude of the means which seem to at trials or convictions; to be denounced be employed. But the man of science or suspected was enough. The broad sees with other eyes, he surveys that waters of the Loire became unfit for use, glorious theatre of wonders which has from the thousands of murdered corpses been spread above and around him with sunk beneath its waves, with circum- an indescribable interest, where the ignostances of fiendish atrocity. The country rant behold nothing but a promiscuous of La Vendée was desolated, the dele- assemblage of twinkling stars, he disgates with the army reported to the con- cerns the most perfect regularity and harvention—“ We have left nothing behind mony, and, unless his mind be blinded us but ashes, and piles of the dead!" by depravity, he cannot fail to be led to devout and improving reflections. The Chaldean shepherds and the Egyptian priests were among the first who paid particular attention to the heavenly bodies, and they found an approximation THERE is no part of the vast and diver- to the length of the solar year. This sified scenery of nature more calculated they effected by a long series of tradito impress man with a conception of his tional or recorded facts, periods of time own dependence and God's infinite conde- after which the eclipses of the sun and scension, than the revelation of the truths the moon return in nearly the same order, of astronomy. The boundless power of and were consequently enabled to prethe Creator is displayed in his capacity dict the recurrence of these phenomena. to create worlds, and direct them by his Pythagoras was one of the first who apwill; and, at the same time, his willing-peared in support of the theory of the ness to regard men, are facts which must fill every thoughtful mind with serious reflections. "When," says the psalmist, "I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers; the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained; what is man, that thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him?" and with these sentiments, every pious observer of the power and goodness of God must sympathize. No. I. Still much ignorance prevails in reference to the objects that astronomy unveils. How few are there who realize the fact, that the earth on which they are pilgrims is a whirling globe, which, while the velocity of its ceaseless movement is indeed prodigious, regulates alike the labour and repose of the whole animate creation. How few understand that the great luminary of the firmament, whose activity daily influences their every movement, is an immovable orb, actuating the planetary systems, and forming the shadow of the great dial which measures the thread of life, the existence of nations, and the great cycles of the world's change. Men in general look at the heavens with an empty gaze, and if some of their glories earth revolving round the sun, and the which is carried uniformly forward to the circumference of a circle called the deferent. In the fourteen centuries which elapsed between the appearance of Ptolemy and Copernicus astronomy remained theoretically in about the same condition, though practically some improvements took place. Copernicus, however, possessed a mastermind, and in his great work, "De Revolutionibus Orbium Cælestium," published in 1543, he showed that all the apparent motions are easily explained, by simply attributing a double movement to the earth a diurnal motion, about its own axis, and an annual motion about the sun. Kepler and Napier followed, and rendered essential service to the cause of astronomical examination and discovery, while the expansive mind of Newton matured ideas which had been but partially formed, and brought to light unknown truths. Since that period, academies, societies, voyages, and expeditions have combined to render most important aid, while the powers of the telescope, in assisting the human organs, continually present new discoveries to encourage the mind of the lover of astronomy. That what has recently been effected may be made clear, it will be necessary to glance at our solar system. Its centre is the sun, the lamp that lights it, the fire that heats it, the sceptre that guides and controls it. Well may it be said— Great source of day! best image here below Or, in the words of Milman : "Thou mightiest work of Him That launch'd thee forth, a gold-crowned bridegroom, To hang thy universal nuptial lamp In the exulting heavens. In thee the light, To thee was given to quicken slumbering nature, Dawned on our better days; the visitant Day spring Of the benighted world. Enduring splendour! Debased, thy mortal nature from the sky, or 111 times the diameter of our globe, and 500 times larger than all the planets together. It is considered to consist of a dark nucleus, which is seen through openings in the luminous crust, called the spots in the sun. It is not, therefore, an incandescent globe; and many agree with M. Arago, that its light is that of burning gas. Considering the enormous and incessant emanation of light and heat from the sun, the question has often arisen, whether the volume of the orb undergoes any diminution. If the high temperature is maintained either by electric currents, or by friction, as has been suggested, no loss of volume would be sustained; but if, according to the hypothesis of Newton, light is produced by the actual emission of luminous particles, a diminution in size would appear indispensable. Observation, however, can afford us no information on this question; for, supposing an actual decrease 'to be proceeding at such a rate as to lessen the diameter by two feet in twenty-four hours-which, having regard to the sun's magnitude may be considered as enormous-3,000 years would elapse before the decrease of the apparent diameter would amount to a single second. The light of the sun moves with the velocity of 192,000 miles per minute, and its distance from the earth, in round numbers, is about 96,000,000 of miles; an extent so prodigious, that a cannon ball would be more than twenty-two years in proceeding from the earth to the The orb revolves round its own axis in twenty-five siderial days. Its magnitude and distance from the earth is ascertained by direct observation. sun. Astronomers have divided the planets into two classes: the primary and secondary planets. The primary ones include Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, SaThe turn, and the Georgium Sidus. secondary ones are the satellites, which belong to some of the primary planets, such as the Moon, attendant upon the Earth, the four Moons or satellites revolving about Jupiter; the seven belonging to Saturn; and the six of the Georgium Sidus. The planets, like the earth, are nearly spherical bodies, and being opaque, become visible only by reflecting the light which they receive from the sun. The laws by which they are governed were discovered by Kepler, who demon The sun is 883,000 miles in diameter, strated that they must necessarily re |