was a translation of "Boetius," which was printed by Dan Thomas Richards, a monk of the monastery of Tavistock. The abbot of Westminster was on the most friendly terms, and, as we learn from Caxton's own testimony, aided him by all possible means.

To this however may be opposed his advocacy of some of the superstitions of his times, such as "the Holy war," the recovery of Jerusalem out of the hands of the Turks, and pilgrimaging to that place. In a prologue to one of the works which Caxton translated, ("Godfrey of Boulogne,") he thus expresses himself:

It has been with some a matter of surprise, that beneath this sacred roof Caxton's mind was not more imbued with a devotional spirit, prompting him to write more on religious subjects. Had it been an occasional resort only, probably this would have been the case; but his familiarity with it, as his business locality, would form an obstacle to the continuance of such a state of mind. And then, Caxton having one object always before him, to which all his energies were unceasingly directed, it was likely that all others should be merged in the one paramount interest. It would seem, however, that he did not purposely avoid religious topics, since he produced some few strictly pertaining to theological subjects. Could he have printed Bibles indeed, and had not done so, he would have incurred just cause for censure. But this was impossible. Sir Thomas More has shown us the reason why Caxton could not print a Bible, although the people would greedily have bought Wickliffe's translation. Before Wickliffe's time there were translations of the Bible, and that which goes by the name of the Reformer's was probably made up from copies of those translations. Wickliffe was interdicted, and More says, count of the penalties ordered by archbishop Arundel's constitution, though the old translations that were before Wickliffe's days remained lawful, and were, in some folks' hands, had and read, yet he thought no printer would lightly be so hot to put any Bible in print at his own charge; and then hang upon a doubtful trial whether the first copy of his translation was made before Wickliffe's days or since; for if it were made since, it must be approved before the printing.' not likely, therefore, that Caxton, a prudent, calculating man, would expose himself to such difficulties. That Caxton was inclined to disseminate right principles, even the principles of piety and truth, may be gathered from the secular works which he printed. One of his biographers bears testimony to his high sense of religion, and says that Caxton lived in the fear of God, and was very desirous of promoting his glory."

"On ac

"It was

"Then I, thus visiting this noble history, which is no fable nor feigned thing, but all that is therein true; considering also the great puisance of the Turk, the great enemy of our Christian faith, destroyer of Christian blood, and usurpers of certain empires and many Christian royaumes and countries, and now late this said year hath assailed the city and castle in the isle of Rhodes, where valiantly he hath been resisted; but yet, nothwithstanding, he hath approached more near, and hath taken the city of Idronte in Puille (Otranto in Apulia,) by which he hath gotten an entrance to enter into the royaume of Naples; and from thence, without he be resisted, into Rome and Italy, to whose resistance I beseech Almighty God to provide, if it be his will. Then it seemeth me necessary and expedient for all Christian princes to make peace, amity, and alliance each with other, and provide, by their wisdoms, the resistance against him, for the defence of our faith and mother, holy church, and also for the recuperation of the holy land and holy city of Jerusalem, in which our blessed Saviour Jesus Christ redeemed us with his precious blood; and to do as this noble prince Godfrey of Boulogne did, with other noble and high princes in his company. Thus, for the exhortation of all Christian princes, lords, barons, knights, gentleman, merchants, and all the common people of this noble royaume, Wales and Ireland, I have emprised to translate this book of the conquest of Jerusalem, out of French into our maternal tongue, to the interest to encourage them by the reading and hearing of the marvellous histories herein comprised, and of the holy miracles showed, and every man in his part endeavour them unto the resistance aforesaid and recuperation of the said Holy land, and for as much as I know no Christian king better proved in arms, and for whom God hath showed more grace, and in all his emprises glorious vanquisher, happy and fortunate than is our natural, lawful, and sovereign lord, and most Christian king, Edward, by the grace of God, king of England

and of France, and lord of Ireland, under the shadow of whose noble protection, I have achieved this simple translation; that he of his most noble grace, would address, stir, or command some noble captain of his subjects, to emprise this war against the said Turk and heathen people, to which I can think that every man will put hand to in their proper persons, and in their movable goods,

Such is the enthusiastically zealous address of Caxton; but we must award praise or censure proportionate to the light afforded to the mind under all circumstances, and more especially in times of extraordinary excitement. Motive is the standard by which at all times we should estimate human actions; for thus are they weighed by Him who knows the thoughts and intents of the heart.

One of the theological books which Caxton printed in the abbey of Westminster was the "Liber Festivalis." In this book, we find the Lord's Prayer, which furnishes a curious specimen of the English of that period.

"Father our that art in heavens," as though not to assign him one specific locality, "hallowed be thy name, thy kingdom come to us; thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven: our every day's bread give us this day; and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from all evil sin," (which seems to imply actual transgression, as that for which we are responsible, Christ having died for original guilt, or the guilty nature which we derive from our first parents.) Amen.

Whether Caxton cast his own types is of little or no importance, as he certainly imported the art from abroad, so he might also the materials, which he never altered or improved. The original art of engraving on wood, and the production of block-books, gradually merged into a different mode that of movable types. This process was, however, very difficult. Wohlgemuth, of Nuremberg, who flourished about 1480, however, effected improvements; and his pupil, Albert Durer, carried it to a perfection which has only been surpassed by the revival of it in our own country.

In imitating the мs. books, the early printers employed the wood engraver chiefly upon initial letters; sometimes their margins were adorned by borders of white lines, or sprigs of foliage upon a black ground. But if a group of figures

were meditated, little more than a mere outline was attempted. By degrees shading was added, and light etching, or white dots, were used: but all crosslines, such as are produced upon metal, were avoided, the process being so difficult upon wood.

The class of customers most numerous for books at this early period, was the laity, who were thought unworthy of the perusal of the monastic мss. Doubtless, this portion of the community were surrounded with many obstacles to the acquirement of knowledge, but the taste being elicited, difficulties were surmounted. The taste, however, for reading was not then, as now, almost universal. Many, even, who possessed the ability, lacked excitement sufficient to prompt to the task; many more were unable to read their own language, and but few could read the learned languages in which the greater number of books were written. Wood cuts, therefore, were a great attraction, and acted as a stimulus to effort. This introduced a more costly mode of engraving, and copper-plate prints were used in printed books. This was a more expensive process, but they gradually superseded in England the use of the wood cuts, unless it were in a few primers or spelling books; but as a high branch of art, the early style of wood engraving disappeared till Bewick renewed it at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. During the last ten or twelve years, this art has been most extensively employed, and such is the perfection to which it is now brought that the finest works which are thus embellished may complete, in their peculiar line, with the smaller specimens of the graver on copper and steel. S.

DIVINE CONDESCENSION, HUMAN
EXALTATION.

THE Condescension of God, as already traced in its downward stages, was not ostentation and display. It could not fail to be productive of certain effects; for as surely as the natural operation of his justice would have tended to destroy, so certainly the operation of his love would have a tendency to save. And it could not be otherwise than that these restorative effects should be commensurate with the degree of condescension which he exercised; they would correspond in measure as well as in kind. Accordingly, we find that this exact correspondence obtains: he stooped to earth, that

and when we look down to the depth from which he has raised us, we may well be astonished at the height of our present elevation; but when we look up towards the summits which we are yet destined to attain, we feel that "it doth not yet appear what we shall be." Great as the honour is which he has already conferred upon us, it is only the beginning, the pledge of what he purposes to bestow on us in heaven. High as is the exaltation to which he has already raised us, we are still rising, and shall continue to ascend, till we have left sin, and death, and hell, at an infinite depth below us, and find ourselves placed at the right hand of God.

Now, looking at the history of this exaltation, we may remark that, like that Divine condescension to which it is owing, it is marked by distinct and successive stages, by which the Christian is carried from glory to glory, till he has reached the summit of perfect bliss. What an important moment in his history is that, when the voice of God first calls him, and induces him to consider his ways! The period of conversion comes, and he arrives at another stage: he now cordially believes, and embraces the gospel; his sins are forgiven; he draws the first breath of a new life, and aims at heaven. Henceforth, his course may be marked by numerous vicissitudes-but they all form so many steps, by which he rises towards heaven. The period of death comes, and he arrives at another and a most important point-he escapes from the state in which he had been walking by faith, and finds himself standing in the brightness of the throne of God; he quits his conflicts and temptations, and finds himself in a world where all is security, holiness, and bliss; he rises as by one mighty bound from earth to heaven. Nor is this the summit of his dignity. The morning of the resurrection will dawn, and he will reach a higher point of glory still. His body will be raised from the low chambers of the grave, and be fashioned like unto Christ's glorious body. The hour of judgment will arrive, and constitute another stage in his advancing career; he will then be acquitted from every charge, welcomed as an heir of heaven, and confirmed in his title to eternal life. And do you think that even then he will have reached the limits of his glory? That glory is an ocean-and he will only then be just launched forth on its shoreless

expanse. Even then he will be heard saying, as he surveys the interminable prospect of blessedness that stretches before him, "It doth not yet appear what we shall be; but this we know, that we are like him, for now we see him as he is;" and this we believe, that in proportion to the depth to which he stooped in order to raise us, in that proportion will be the height of our exaltation, for ever advancing in endless progression.

To this advanced stage of their exaltation, however, Christians have not yet attained. Some of them are only just emerging into spiritual Hight and life; others are in the midst of their career toward heaven; others have just arrived at the point at which their spirits pass to the throne of God; and others have long been familiar with the scenes and the society of heaven. Were the operation of the grace of God to terminate at this moment, were the affairs of his kingdom to be wound up at once, how astonishing the effects which his condescension has already produced! How many has it raised to the enjoyment of eternal life! What a tide of happiness has it poured through the world-bearing on its bosom to the haven of rest an innumerable multitude, every one of whom would else have perished in the blackness of darkness for ever! But it shall not cease to operate till it has compassed the salvation of all his people; and then, and not till then, will it be adequately appreciated and adored. But then, when all the objects of his love-the fruits of his condescension-shall stand upon the mount of God; when they shall look up and gaze upon the glories of Him who sits upon the throne, and then look back, and down upon the cross, and remember that he once hung upon it, and trace the various stages through which he passed till he reached it, what an amazing impression of his condescension will they have, and what a theme for praise. And when they shall contrast their divine exaltation with their former depression, when they shall find that they are without fault before the throne of God, that they are walking in the society of angels, are raised to the enjoyment of all that heaven contains, and then look down at the state in which his condescension found them, and, still lower, at the state of perdition from which his grace has saved them, what a view will they have of their high exaltation, and what a subject for gratitude to Him "who raiseth up the needy

out of the dunghill, that he may set him with princes," even the princes of heaven! But the adoration and praise of heaven must begin on earth. Christians are not strangers to these emotions now. It is by these, and the influence which these have upon their life, that they are distinguished from an ungodly world. The Saviour has spoken to them, and they have listened, wondered, and obeyed. He has raised them from the dust, and they have followed him. He has shown them his cross, and they feel that they are not their own. He has pointed them to the open gate of heaven, and they are hastening and ascending to reach it. He has constituted them his friends and his children, and they are advancing to take possession of their inheritance, and to share his glory.—Dr. Harris.

MY RAILWAY COMPANIONS.

No. I.

I LOVE a trip by the railway. Independent of the pleasure of gliding along with more speed than a race-horse, and getting to the end of my journey without the sense of fatigue, there is the pleasure of meeting and conversing with my fellowtravellers. True the pleasure is of a transient nature; for we have scarcely entered on any subject before we arrive at our journey's end; but, knowing this, we only talk the faster. True, also, the engine, with its perpetual hubbub, almost renders nugatory the precious sense of hearing; but, knowing this, we only talk the louder. The excitement of the journey, in short, rarely fails to afford gratification. My happiness is rendered the greater, because it gives me an opportunity of reading a page or two in the book of human nature; of studying the characters of those with whom I am wont to travel.

It is by a rare chance that I go to the station but what I meet with the merry face of Mr. H-. And it gives me pleasure to meet him; for, although a man of the world, he yet respects the character of a true Christian. Unlike some men, he never slights a man because his countenance happens to be graver than his own, or because his notions of religion are stricter than he deems necessary. Never do I meet him but he holds out his hand, and gives mine a firm grasp; and never is his hand at liberty again but it is dipped deep into his pocket for the silver snuff-box, in order to show his

friendship by offering me a pinch. I am not a snuff-taker,-I could wish none were, but I never refuse the proffered favour, although nine-tenths of the particles I take therefrom, at least, find their way unseen to the ground. I could not be guilty of refusing the gratuitous gift offered with such goodwill.

Mr. H- may be taken as the type of a large portion of mankind. He is what is laconically called "a man of business." His occupation is in town, but being a man of considerable wealth he has a residence in the country, so that he travels to and fro daily. And the train itself is not more punctual to time than he is. He has travelled by our railway for several years, and he often boasts that he has never yet been behind time; never failing to add at the same time, "there is nothing like punctuality." The want of punctuality would doubtless be to him no ordinary crime. Indeed I have had an opportunity of witnessing his indignation at its occurrence. I remember one morning, just as we had stepped into the box, a young man was seen, all covered with perspiration, hastening up the steps, in order to get his ticket. "Hallo!" ejaculated Mr. H-, "there is a young fellow who will be just in time to be too late." Then, pausing a moment, he continued, "I thought he would; the door is closed, and, hark! there's the whistle. There's no chance for him. But it serves him right. Nothing lessens a man in my estimation more than the want of punctuality. For a young man especially there can be no excuse, and I do not pity him for a moment. He knew the time, and he should have been here; it is as easy to be a minute too soon as a minute too late. I hope it will prove a lesson to him. Such a man would not do for my house; I should soon shut the doors against him.' I have no doubt but that my friend Mr. H- would shut the doors against any one who did not show himself to be a man of business in the essential quality of punctuality. I have little hesitation in saying, in fact, that whoever is employed by him, if they would wish to retain their situations, must be the very counterpart of himself. I never met with a man more thoroughly immersed in business than he is; judging, at least, from his conversation. Trade, its prosperity or depression, is his constant theme; and although one's mind may be averse to such a theme, yet I never fail to learn something from his lips unknown to me before. I often think,