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and repeats hymns and many long chap-| ters verbatim. At a late examination in the catechism, Horomona was the only individual who knew every word correctly.—Savage Life and Scenes.

CAXTON, THE PRINTER.

No. II.

IN Caxton we discover many valuable qualities. He was apt to be suspicious of his own abilities-one of the surest marks of talent. In his life of Charles the Great, printed in 1485, he says,"I have emprised (undertaken or attempted) and concluded in myself, to reduce (translate) this said book into English, as all along and plainly ye may read, hear, and see, in this book here following; beseeching all them that shall find fault in the same, to correct and amend it, and also to pardon me of the rude and simple reducing; and though so be there no gay terms, nor subtle nor new eloquence, yet I hope that it shall be understood; and to that intent I have specially reduced it, after the simple cunning that God hath lent to me, whereof I humbly and with all my heart thank him. And that I may do so and continue, I beseech him to grant me of his grace; and so to labour and occupy myself virtuously, that I may come out of debt and deadly sin, and after this life I may come to his bliss in heaven."

Fifty years anterior to the boyhood of Caxton, great changes had taken place in the system of education in England. In the time of Edward II. children in the grammar schools were not taught English. It was a matter of policy with the Norman kings, and long afterwards of their successors, to discountenance the old English and Saxon language altogether; and to sanction and encourage the Norman French, the language of the conquerors. This was used for all purposes in the law; the new statutes of the realm were written in French, and gentlemen, from their infancy, were taught it, in preference to English. After the time of the great plague, some schoolmasters discontinued the teaching of French, and used all construction in English. The grammar was therefore sooner learned, but there was the loss of French, which was a disadvantage to those who passed the seas. It was this change of system which occasioned the

modest mind of Caxton to doubt his abilities as a translator. He feared his capacity for faithfully translating the French into English, and indeed he sometimes fell short in meeting the approbation of some of his readers. As they had not become so conversant as himself with the perpetual changes that were occurring, the introduction of new words and phrases, together with the greater difficulties of distinction between the courtly dialect and that observed by the commonalty, he was charged with the use of outlandish terms, and he was entreated to use old and homelier ones, which might be understood by all. Fain would he have renewed those of his native village; but these now sounded to him as barbarous as the more refined did when they first fell upon his unpractised ear. Improvement, like the noiseless wing of time, so gradually moves onward, that we perceive not its flight; and Caxton found it a difficult task to express himself—desirous as he was of being understood by all classes of the community. When, however, there were no books circulated generally, it was impossible to construct a universal language. The scarcity of books which existed four centuries back, can now scarcely be realized. Their costliness alone would have shut out the middle classes, much less the poorer, from the possibility of purchasing them.

The multiplication of books, in connexion with the orders of people for whom they were intended, is a theme of deep interest. Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham, in his " Philobiblion," a treatise on the love of books, written in Latin in 1344, says: "As it is necessary for a state to provide military arms, and prepare plentiful stores of provisions, for soldiers who are about to fight, so it is evidently worth the labour of the church militant to fortify itself against the attacks of pagans and heretics with a multitude of sound books." This sentiment operated as a powerful stimulant to increase the number of volumes. The invention of paper, also, about a century and a half before Richard de Bury wrote, and then used generally instead of vellum for manuscripts in ordinary request, furnished great accession to their number, since transcribing no longer was confined to the monastic orders.

The reverence felt for books by Richard de Bury was blended, however, with

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much superstitious exclusiveness and bigotry. Laymen," he says, "to whom it matters not whether they look at a book turned wrong side upwards, or spread before them in its natural order, are altogether unworthy of any communion with books." He deprecated reading, even in the highest orders, without previously washing their hands-considering it a crime, as well as a sign of indolence, and an undue sense of their privilege, to touch the precious pages of a volume, at any time, when they did not devote their attention entirely to its contents. One of his injunctions runs thus:-"Let there be a mature decorum in opening and closing of volumes, that they may neither be unclasped with precipitous haste, nor thrown aside, after inspection, without being duly closed."

When Richard de Bury died, he bestowed a considerable portion of his valuable library upon a company of scholars who lived in a hall at Oxford; one of his chapters is entitled, "A provident Arrangement, by which Books may be lent to Strangers;" meaning, doubtless, students at Oxford, but not belonging to that hall. In this he says, —“Five of the scholars dwelling in the aforesaid hall are to be appointed by the master of the same hall, to whom the custody of the books is to be deputed. Of which five, three, and in no case fewer, shall be competent to lend any books for inspection and use only; but for copying and transcribing, we will not allow any book to pass without the walls of the house. Therefore, when any scholar, whether secular or religious, whom we have deemed qualified for the present favour, shall demand the loan of a book, the keepers must carefully consider whether they have a duplicate of that book; and if so, they may lend it to him, taking a security which in their opinion shall exceed in value the book delivered.”

Such a system must have greatly limited the extent of learning, and caused many impediments to study, especially when no scholar was allowed the reading of a volume in the library more than two hours at longest. Oftener, indeed, they were restricted to one only, although even this state of things was an improvement upon former periods, when but one book was allowed to each of a religious fraternity; this being delivered to them at the commencement of Lent, and returned the following season.

In reference to existing impediments to the advance of learning in the days of Caxton, Southey says, in his "Colloquies on the Progress and Prospects of Society," "One of the first effects of printing was to make proud men look upon learning as disgraced, by being thus brought within reach of the common people. Till that time, learning, such as it was, had been confined to courts and convents; the low birth of the clergy being overlooked, because they were privileged by their order:" as in our day, a name too often obtained the reward which merit alone is entitled to. But when laymen in humble life were enabled to procure books, the pride of aristocracy took an opposite and even more absurd course, insomuch that it was deemed derogatory for a nobleman if he could read or write. Even scholars themselves complained, that the reputation of learning, and the respect due to it, and its rewards, were lowered when it was thrown open to all men; and it was seriously proposed to prohibit the printing of any book that could be afforded for sale below the price of three soldi. "This base and invidious feeling," Southey goes on to say, 66 was never so directly avowed in other countries as in Italy, the land where literature was first restored; and yet, in this more liberal island, ignorance was for some generations considered to be a mark of distinction by which a man of gentle birth chose, not unfrequently, to make it apparent, that he was no more obliged to live by the toil of his brain than by the sweat of his brow. The same changes in society, which rendered it no longer possible for this class of men to pass their lives in idleness, have completely put an end to this barbarous pride. It is as obsolete as the fashion of long fingernails, which, in some parts of the east, are still the distinctive marks of those who labour not with their hands. All classes are now brought within the reach of your current literature—that literature which, like a moral atmosphere, is as it were the medium of intellectual life, and on the quality of which, according as it may be salubrious or noxious, the health of the public mind depends.'

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A very important result of the art of printing in Caxton's time, was the promulgation of the laws, which at best could be only very imperfectly kept, when they were but partially known. The infliction of punishment on an act

tion of any art, this was a great achievement. Those who followed after did more work, but they had fewer interruptions to their progress, and greater facilities than he.

of disobedience ignorantly committed, | pany the first introduction and applicaseems, indeed, scarcely justice to the offender. Another benefit was the publication of acts of parliament, which about a century afterwards became an important branch of trade. The cheapening processes, however, of the art of printing were withheld, at least from that branch which was to instruct the people in their new laws-for the statutes were the dearest of books, and this abuse has been but lately remedied.

The closing productions of Caxton's press are especially worthy of remark, since they serve to show his great vigour, and unquenchable enthusiasm. His spirit, even at almost the termination of his earthly course, was buoyant and energetic. Upon him set not the gloom of old age; but we see him as it were putting forth additional strength, as though stretching forward, in anticipation of another and a better state of being, where a wider field of knowledge would open for his contemplation, and where his faculties for enjoyment would be enlarged and perfected.

The last work in which the great printer was engaged, was, "The Art and Craft to know how to die." How completely in harmony with the event which was so shortly to occur was this! A singular passage with which the book commences somewhat abruptly, will suffice to show the character of its con

tents.

Winkin de Woorde, it has been recorded, printed, in about forty years, the large number of 408 works; and Pynson, in a period of about thirty-eight years, 2012. We mention these, as they more immediately followed the venerable father of the art-the account of whom has engaged our attention.

In Dr. Dibdin's work we have an enumeration of 2926 books, bringing down his calculation to the end of the century. Since this period the increase of the number of books has been immense. Have we not abundant reason to bless God for raising up such a man as William Caxton? S. S.

A NEW CREATION.

THE first thing necessary in order to the obedience which the law requires, is such a change of life and character, as shall denominate the person in whom it takes place, "a new creation." And justly may it be called so. New it is, for it carries with it altered views, altered principles, affections, joys, sorrows, objects previously unknown. God, the soul, time, eternity; sin, Christ, heaven, hell, happiness, misery-have all a "When it is so, that what a man meaning which the terms never before maketh or doeth it is made to come to conveyed. And is not this a creation? some end; and if the thing be good As truly as the old one, when God made and well made, it must needs come to the heaven and the earth, and the Spirit good end; then by greater and better of God moved upon the face of the reason every man ought to intend in waters. And is not such a change nesuch wise to live in this world, in keep-cessary? Does not our Lord declare, ing the commandments of God, that he that, Except a man be born again, he may come to a good end. And then cannot see the kingdom of God?" John out of this world, full of wretchedness iii. 3. Tell us not that every person and tribulation, he may go to heaven baptized is in this interior sense born unto God and his saints unto joy per- again. Was Simon Magus born again, durable." who was pronounced, immediately after his baptism, to be in the gall of bitterness and in the bonds of iniquity? We admit the reality of a new birth unto righteousness wherever we see its effects; but we dismiss the enthusiastic notion that there has been a Divine change of the heart unto holiness, when the spirit and life show that the world, the flesh, and the devil, are still paramount in their influence. In short, we hold to the reasonable-I may say more, we hold to the inspired view, of St. John, in the third

It is not for us to decide upon the condition of Caxton's heart in the sight of a holy God; but, in the judgment of charity, we may hope that he was enabled, by Divine grace, to improve the light he had, and that "absent from the body, he was and is present with the Lord."

It has been calculated that Caxton printed no fewer than sixty-four works in the space of twenty years. Surrounded by so many difficulties, as always accom

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chapter of his first epistle, "Whosoever is born of God doth not commit sin: for his seed remaineth in him, and he cannot sin, because he is born of God." And in the fifth chapter of that epistle, the eighteenth verse, he says, "We know that whosoever is born of God sinneth not; but he that is begotten of God keepeth himself, and that wicked one toucheth him not." The apostle does not mean absolutely, that a person born again does not ever commit sin, for he cannot be supposed to contradict himself; and in the first chapter of the epistle, he says, "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us." What he means, unquestionably, is, that the man who is born again does not practise sin; does not sin habitually does not sin without continually-renewed repentance, and application to the blood of Christ; does not sin in any manner inconsistent with a life of sincere, though still imperfect obedience to the will of God. Now to say, that a man may be spiritually regenerate and yet live a life of sin, and to say that the most of those who are so regenerate do in reality live such a life, appears calculated to set aside the inspired language of St. John, where he tells us, and repeats the sentiment, that "he that is born of God sinneth not." Indeed it may well be questioned whether the value of regeneration be not altogether set aside, when from the grace of it, if that grace were universally conveyed in baptism by admission, there is not one person in ten thousand but falls away; thereby incurring, were such the fact, only an increase of guilt and responsibility. Assuredly a real, permanent change of heart is necessary, in order to the attainment of eternal life; such a change of disposition as will lead to all truth, righteousness, and purity of life. For if the law be inscribed upon the heart, the proof of its being there must be seen in the conduct. If the heart of stone be taken out of the flesh, and a new heart be substituted, out of it must the issue of a new life go forth. If the Christian be the epistle of Christ, he must be read and known of all men who have eyes to see or spirits to discern. If God hath shined into the heart, he who has received the illumination ought to reflect it, and to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ.-Rev. T. Kennion.

THE FIRE-WORSHIPPERS.

No. I.

A TALE FOR THE YOUNG.

"If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness;

"And my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand:

"This also were an iniquity to be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the God that is above," Job xxxi. 26, 27, 28.

A few years since, two foreigners, of a darker complexion than that of Englishmen, were seen walking through the street of a busy town, about thirty miles from London. Everybody looked at them as they passed, and some rude and thoughtless people stood gazing at them till the strangers seemed almost confounded. But they did not return rudeness by rudeness; they walked quietly on, and their mild countenances showed no traces of anger.

The dress of these two young men seemed very unsuitable for the somewhat chilly autumnal morning on which they were seen. Every one knew at once that they were natives of the east, for they wore those long flowing garments made of their calicoes and muslins, which are so pleasant in the oriental climates, but not fitted for our colder and more changeable weather. But these men of the east could not have borne the closer broadcloth vestments in which Englishmen are dressed, and which protect our countrymen so well from the variable seasons.

As they passed along the town, the townsmen asked of each other of what nation the strangers could be. One said that they must be Turks, because they wore turbans on their heads; another thought they were Arabs; and a third, Hindoos. But no one guessed quite correctly, for they were Parsees.

And now some reader, perhaps, will say, "I know nothing of such people, I never heard of a Parsee. Where do they live? what kind of men are they? and why do they come from the warm land of the east to our cold island?"

The Parsees were anciently the inhabitants of Persia, and some neighbouring countries, all of which were once included under the name of Iran. They are now a scattered people, and the few who remain in their own land are like the Jews in Palestine, an oppressed and afflicted

race.

They are like the Jews in another respect, that they are distinct from all other nations by their religious belief, and the ceremonies and practices con

nected with it. But they are not like that people in one thing; they are not dispersed as the Hebrews are into all countries, and in every land, and, in almost all, treated with scorn and cruelty. It is very seldom that a Parsee is seen in England, or on the continent of Europe. The chief seat of their residence is in Bombay, so that the largest number of them are our fellow-subjects. Above six thousand families reside in the capital city of the presidency. The remainder are chiefly to be found at Yezd, in Persia.

In very early periods of the world the people of Iran were known by their peculiar religious belief. This was then called Mayianism, and the priests were called Magi. These were also learned men, and possessors of the different sciences known in the east in ancient days. They used to pretend, most falsely indeed, to foretell events by the stars, and they said they could obtain answers to questions from those who had long been dead. They professed, too, to inquire into futurity by means of divining-cups and water, and, in short, practised magic in all its forms, so that the Persians believed that they, by their skill, could influence the past, the present, and the future. There is no doubt that they acquired the great influence which they had in the east, by superior intelligence and learning; for it was undoubtedly the result of that power which the strong mind will ever have over the weak one. These magi, in the Holy Scriptures, are called by different names. If the reader will open his Bible at the second chapter of the book of Daniel, he will see that, when Nebuchadnezzar had a dream which troubled him, and of which he wished to know the meaning, he ordered into his presence "the magicians, and the astrologers, and the sorcerers, and the Chaldeans, for to show the king his dreams," Dan. ii. 2. We cannot understand precisely the meaning of the different classes into which these soothsayers were divided, but there is no doubt that they were all the magi, or wise men. We know how God chose to confound all human wisdom, at that time, and to assert his own power alone to reveal the hidden things of the future, when Daniel came and declared the dream to the king, and added, "But as for me, this secret is not revealed to me for any wisdom that I have more than any living; but for their sakes that shall make known the interpretation to the king, and that

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thou mightest know the thoughts of thy heart," Dan. ii. 30.

Still more interesting is another scene of holy writ, in which the eastern magi took a conspicuous part. They were the "wise men of the east" who came, bringing gifts; "gold, and frankincense, and myrrh, and falling down and worshipping the infant Jesus, declared that he was king of the Jews. How came these eastern magi to the feet of Jesus? God brought them there. They had stood gazing on the stars, which ran their courses in the same order then, as in our later days. One bright star, or meteor, in the blue sky caught their attention; they knew it had not shone there before; they followed it, and it led to the presence of earth's Lord and King. O happy magi! your learning could have taught you but little of the great Jehovah; but Divine light was shed upon you, and ye became the humble and teachable disciples of Him who built the heavens, and framed the glittering stars.

The ancient Persians believed that there was one holy and almighty Being, the one God; but they thought that God had made two inferior, but still mighty beings, and had given them much of his own nature. Both these beings were supposed to be endued with the power of creating; and the good principle or being was called Ormuzd, while the evil principle was termed Ahriman. The former was considered to have made man, and to be the source of all that was good in the world. When the Persians saw the bright stars, or the flowering trees, or the pleasant flowing rivers, then they thought that Ormuzd had made them; but when they saw a ferocious beast, or a poisonous snake, or a noxious plant, or a blasting sand-storm of the desert, then they believed that the evil principle had been at work. The two powers of good and evil, it was supposed, were always at war in the world; but the Persians hoped for the time when good was to prevail, and Ormuzd and his followers should triumph over Ahriman, and cast him into darkness for ever.

Light was considered by the ancient Persians as partaking, more than any other substance, of the essence of the Supreme Being; and as the sun was the source of light, they paid it a religious homage, under the idea that it represented the God of life and light. They did not at first think that the sun was really God; but when persons mix any

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