and understood by the masses, but that they, the priests, should interpret and dispense it as seemed good to them. From the beginning of the world there has been an aristocracy of learning who have claimed that education is a dangerous thing in the minds of the common people. In some parts of the earth, at least, these aristocracies of wealth, religion, and learning have been giving way to the true theory; that every man is entitled to the right of following his own enlightened conscience in religion, that he has the right to say in some manner who shall rule over him, that he has the right to receive such compensation for his labor as he may agree to take, and that he has the right to learn any thing in this universe that GOD has given him the capacity to learn.

Theoretically, in our own country at least, we are said to be free from these ancient tyrannies, Practically, however, we are still somewhat in the toils of former customs and teachings. There is still one kind of freedom at least that we do not fully understand,—the freedom that comes from the highest intelligence. By the diffusion of knowledge, as we find it in our time, the common people are beginning to understand that a knowledge of religion is not the peculiar property of the Priesthood, that authority to rule is not the birthright of a king, and that learning does not belong exclusively to those who are born geniuses. If the masses of the people desire still further freedom from the domineering power of these various aristocracies they must educate both generally and particularly.

In the preceding remarks we have not meant to arraign the course of the world's history. It has no doubt been according to the law of the "survival of the fittest." If men do not know how to rule themselves they should be governed by some one of more intelligence and wisdom than they possess. If men are too weak-minded and ignorant to study and understand religion, it may be better that the Priests should rule over their consciences. If mankind will not educate themselves in a general way, it is inevitable that they will be guided by those who are better educated. Still further, if we choose to be ignorant of the principles of good government, if we are too indolent to think for ourselves what is right or wrong, if we still cry out against learning and education, we ought not to complain if the aristocracies of Caste, the Priesthood, and Culture seize the reigns of power we have invited them to take.

In the education of the people experience proves that we may depend on the opposition of these classes. We have been told that education and labor are incompatible. That if you educate a boy he wont work, That if you educate a girl she will play the lady. We are also told that these persons not only wont work, but that schooling spoils the child of labor; that it really incapacitates him for labor. If this idea were only proclaimed by the avowed enemies of education, but little harm could come of it, but we find frequently the laborer himself joining in the cry for his own destruction. He complains of monopolies that take advantage of his poverty and ignorance, and yet frequently dooms his own children to a life of the same kind.

If it is true that learning unfits a boy or girl for manual labor, why is it that ignorance and idleness are so often found together, while education

and the prosperity that comes from industry are found in company ? Why are not ignorant tribes of Indians the most active, industrious, and prosperous of earth's inhabitants? Why are not the Germans a nation of idlers instead of one of the most industrious peoples of the world? But, independent of facts to the contrary, why should learning unfit a child to labor? Does the laborer need only bodily strength? Does he not need the perception to see what is to be done and how to do it? Has he no need of reason? Has he no need of the attention and perseverance that come from overcoming his tasks in the school-room? Dropping the interrogative form we may say positively that education requires industry, and it cannot be obtained by idleness. It increases our desires, and our desires are the sources of our activity. It is the rule every where that the deepest ignorance is the most likely to be satisfied with rags and dirt, and these are the result of idleness. The educated man in the great majority of cases, desires a home of refinement, and hence he is incited to labor that he may obtain it. In short we are indebted to education and the diffusion of intelligence and virtue for whatever of material prosperity we enjoy. Take away all learning and wealth goes with it. Remove all the inhabitants of a wealthy city and fill their places with Digger Indians, and the land on which it is built will be worth about $1.25 per acre.

Labor is not only the child of education, but is dependent on it for its skill and productiveness. Education is now more necessary to the laborer than ever before, because the kind of labor required demands skill and knowledge rather than brute force which is more and more supplied by steam and other forces of nature.

Laborers need to be educated because of the competition that everywhere surrounds and consumes them. The time has been if a man were as skilful and intelligent as his immediate neighbor, he had but little to fear. It is not so in our day. Every man must now compete more or less with the whole world. The multiplication of telegraphs, steamships, and railroads has brought the world's skill to the doors of every man. No country is far from us now. In five minutes we may send an order for goods to France, and in two weeks' time display the goods upon our counters. The farmer in the United States must now compete with the farmer in Russia, for every bushel of wheat raised in that country affects the price of wheat in this country. A wagon-maker may be the best in his town or county, but still he is not safe. He must be the best in his State, the best in his country, yea, the best in the world, before he is free from this consuming competition. Whatever of success ignorance and stupidity may have had in the past, let no father suppose that his son or daughter in the future can compete with the combined training and talent of the world, without the most careful attention to those studies that have a bearing upon the intended occupation or profession.

We have only to cast our eyes about us to behold some very striking effects of this competition between ignorance and intelligence. For a few years past our country has been overrun with paupers, idlers, and tramps, who seem to have nothing to do, and apparently can get nothing to do. Are they educated or skilled workmen who are obliged to live this kind

of a life? Occasionally an efficient laborer, through sickness, misfortune, or downright dissipation, may be found in this unfortunate class, but you know that the great mass of these idlers and beggars have no skill of hand nor intelligence of mind to bring into market. They cannot be trusted to do anything but the simplest and most unskilled of all labor. So ignorant and inefficient in all useful employments are they, that if they should honestly apply themselves they could scarcely earn their food and clothes at the beginning of their reformation.

In depressing times, when competition in some trades is very great, a practical education if it is as broad as it should be, will enable its possessor to turn his hand to another trade. The division of labor, which is a leading idea of our present civilization, in connection with the invention of labor-saving machinery, while enabling the race to make unbounded strides towards human perfection, is at the same time crushing out the lives of millions of the ignorant and unskilful. One of our difficulties now is, that workmen do not learn principles and practices that might apply to many vocations. They do not even learn the whole of one trade. One man learns to make the head of a pin and is therewith content. Another learns to make the point of a pin. One man learns to cut out a shoe, another to drive the pegs or sew it, and each one learns his little mite in such a way that he is like a machine, constructed in such a manner as to perform but a single operation. If you attempt to make the machine do something else you destroy it. If the maker of pin-heads cannot find employment at his trade he is financially ruined, and instead of attempting to do some other kind of work, he feels justified in turning tramp or calling upon the public for assistance. In order that the pin-maker or shoe-cutter may turn from one employment to another when some machine is invented that performs his little part better and cheaper than he could do it, he must have mind culture as well as hand culture, general education as well as particular education.

We are told that in order to make manual labor more sought by the young, we should hold up to their view the dignity of labor. But in what does the dignity of labor consist? All brain labor is not dignified, nor is all manual labor dignified. The dignity of manual labor depends on the motive-on the amount of thought, intelligence, and skill connected with its performance. The man who digs up his field with a stick instead of a spade, or with a spade, instead of a plow, when he can have his choice of implements, does not demonstrate the dignity of labor. The man who drags his firewood from the forest, on the ground at the end of a rope, when a wagon and horses may be used, does not dignify labor. The way to dignify labor is to show intelligence and skill by taking every possible advantage of the laws of nature and science. If you would make work reputable elevate the workman. But this cannot be done without education.

One man in his ignorance knows of no way of removing a large stone from his pathway, except by calling in several of his distant neighbors it may be, to assist him by main strength to roll it to one side. Another man who has knowledge performs the same task alone in one-tenth of the time by means of a simple lever. Which one exemplifies the dignity of

labor? If the dignity of labor consists in putting forth mere muscular strength, in striking a hard blow, the work of a donkey is as dignified as that of a man, and the work of a mule is much more so. Let the young be taught that there is a true dignity of labor-that which seizes every suggestion of science, and uses it so as to economize labor.

The manual-laboring classes sometimes justly complain that they are oppressed by unjust legislation, that their rights are not properly regarded by our law-makers, and that those who are more intelligent than they are take advantage of their ignorance. What is the remedy? Laborers must become law-makers also. How shall they do it? Only by education. If laborers, whether agricultural or mechanical, would compete with other classes of society for the honors and emoluments of the world, they must be educated. Let them educate, and "the sceptre and crown of civil service will return to the plow and pruning hook." "It is by their neglect of learning the farmer and mechanic have lost the power they had in the days of CINCINNATUS and WASHINGTON, If a man would be great he must know. If he would rule, he must understand the thoughts and ways of men. There is but one alternative in this matter. The farmer or mechanic may study and prosper, and rule the world, or he may repudiate education, denounce agricultural schools, and remain the serf and burdenbearer of the nation."

We believe every workman of whatever kind should have an Industrial Education, that is a particular education-one that applies directly to the trade he would follow. But we believe even more in a general education for the laborer, such as is furnished by most of our High Schools. The striking advantage of a general education over that for a special trade, when only one is possible, is shown by contrasting the working mechanics of this country with those of European countries. Until a few years ago the European laborer only had the advantage of the Trade or Industrial Schools. As there were no free or public schools, anything like general culture was not for him. In this country, until within a few years, we had no technical or industrial schools, but our laborers, especially in New England, have had the advantage of the public or common schools which only give general instruction. The activity of mind shown by our workmen is far beyond that of other countries. No other country has produced such ingenious inventions nor so many of them. New England, where general education is perhaps more diffused than in any other portion of the world of like extent, and where technical education has as yet done but little for the laborer, has produced by far the most labor-saving inventions of any people in the world, and the laboring people of this part of our country perhaps are better supplied with comfortable homes than any other people of the same class.

The laborer needs to be a strong man mentally and morally as well as physically. The strong man is the well-balanced man. The well-balanced man must be educated in every direction. It is said that no rope, chain, or piece of timber is stronger than its weakest part. Not even the "Won. derful one-Hoss Shay" could have run "a hundred years to a day" if its parts had not been equally strong.

The problem then that seems to be before the educators of to-day is

How some system of Industrial Education can be incorporated with our excellent public-school system so that general culture and hand culture may be carried along together harmoniously. If this can be done we believe the laborer of the United States will lead the world in ingenuity and handicraft. How this may be done we leave to be considered by the papers and discussions in this Department which are soon to follow.

This was followed by a paper entitled, "The Beginning of Industrial Instruction," by the Hon. M. A. Newell, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Baltimore, Md.

THE BEGINNING OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

Fifty odd years ago, in one of the leading cities of the United States, about this time of the year, and about this hour of the day, a teacher might be heard calling at the top of his voice, "Sand-class, come up!" The story was told me by one who had been a member of the class. His father was the teacher. It was a long, low, dimly-lighted room; there were some two or three hundred pupils; a small number of slab desks, and a large number of backless benches constituted the furniture; as for apparatus there was a shallow trough, four feet square, filled with sand slightly moistened and nicely levelled off; no maps, no charts, no blackboards, no writing materials, except such as some of the bigger boys carried in their trousers' pockets; one solitary teacher aided by a hickory wand almost as long as himself took care that "order reigned in Warsaw," while a dozen of lads called monitors, somewhat older than the average of their school-fellows, each standing in the centre of a group of fifteen or twenty other lads distributed formal instruction, open rebukes, and secret cuffs, with impartial vigor, under the general orders of the Commander-in-chief. And what was the sand-class? Why, slates being rare and costly and blackboards being unknown or undiscovered, the smooth face of the moistened sand in the shallow trough formed an excellent surface whereon to trace the letters of the alphabet or the elements of any other branch of primary instruction which needed graphic illustration. This was the only free school in the city, if indeed it could strictly be called free, when the pupils were expected to pay for their instruction at the rate of a penny a week each. And this was the beginning of a great public-school system which to-day, in the same city, numbers its pupils by scores of thousands, and embraces within its scope every grade from the lowest primary to the gates of the University, and the entire range of knowledge from the A B C's to the literature of Greece and Rome, as well as France and Germany.

Why do I recall these things? Not simply to remind you that the public-school system of to-day, as it exists in cities and other centres of comparatively dense population, has its root and origin in the old and almost forgotten Lancasterian school; but rather that you might perceive that this magnificent system of universal intellectual education of which we are so justly proud, had within the memory of men yet living an origin as obscure, a beginning as insignificant, a prospect as discouraging,