schools, however, and little appears in

Many Communities

Local Sentiment Sometimes so Clings to Ungraded Schools that Their Veriest Faults Appear as Virtues. Veteran County Superintendent in Nebraska Stoutly Defends the Small School. Approval of His People Shown in Elections

U

NGRADED one-teacher schools, with the traditions of generations about them and with their supposed economy of operation, are so firmly fixed in the lives of thousands of Americans that all the arguments for consolidation and all the examples of

the towns in the Ohio county are larger, more numerous, and not so distinctly of the agricultural type as those of the Nebraska county.

Both communities are composed of energetic, thrifty, and prosperous people, typical of their respective States. Α

Onc-teacher school in a German community

communities which are ranked as progressive have failed to make appreciable headway against them in the minds of those persons.

The Bureau of Education is and has been for many years committed to the advocacy of consolidation of rural schools when the circumstances justify it. Intelligent application of this policy requires full consideration of the views of those who oppose it in whole or in part, and also an examination of the reasons which animate those who maintain separate schools for small numbers of children under conditions which appear to be altogether favorable to consolidation.

Simultaneously with the description of the school organization of Portage County, Ohio, which is printed on another page of this issue, a letter came to the Bureau of Education from F. J. Vogltance, superintendent of public instruction of Colfax County, Nebr., describing the schools under his control.

In physical characteristics the two counties are similar. Both are on the level prairie and intersected by small streams. The Platte River forms the southern boundary of the Nebraska county. Colfax County Covers 405 square miles and has a population of about 12,000. Portage County with an area of 521 square miles contained 36,269 persons in 1920. Agriculture is the principal pursuit in both counties, but

characteristic of Colfax County is the existence of a few settlements composed almost wholly of persons who retain in great degree the national customs of the countries from which they came. One of these settlements, for example, is Irish and another is German. English is the medium of instruction in all the

ference in the nationality of the pupils.

The striking contrast between the schools of Portage County and those of Colfax County is in the adherence of the officers and people of the latter to the one-teacher schools. The reasons advanced are typical, and it is well worth while to set them forth as they are presented by Superintendent Vogltance. The statements following were taken

from his letter and from documents which he furnished.

Colfax County contains 60 school districts. In 53 of them one-teacher schools are maintained; 3 schools have 2 teachers each, and 1 school 3 teachers. Six of the districts are classed as town districts. Four standard high schools are maintained in the county and some secondary instruction is given in four other districts.

One of the one-teacher schools enrolled only 6 pupils in 1923-24, and 18 enrolled 15 or fewer. Only one one-teacher schoc 1 had as many as 38 pupils enrolled; the average was 18 per school.

The question of consolidation has been presented several times to the voters of Colfax County or parts of it, and every time the negative vote has been overwhelming. The elements which influenced the voters and are effective in maintaining the present form of organization are thus stated by Superintendent Vogltance:

1. The average tax for 1923-24 in oneteacher school districts was 21⁄2 mills per dollar; in two and three teacher districts, 234 mills; in the four high-school districts, 11.9 mills. The extension of "high-school districts" is considered unprofitable, and the feeling is that it is cheaper for a

farmer to pay for his child's room and board in town for four years than to pay the high-school tax all the time. Automobiles are numerous in the county; there is one to every four in the population. Many pupils drive from their homes in the country to the high school in the town in their own cars.

of the county are open nine full months and no teacher has had less than a com

plete high-school course. In the 53 oneteacher schools are 4 pianos, 20 phonographs, and 32 organs. Seven have telephones and 2 have electric lights. All but two have good reference books and all have some library books. Steam heat is

2. Every pupil in a one-teacher school sees and hears every other pupil recite, and he therefore learns from the experience of others. A child in such a school is practically in every grade of it as long as he is in that school. Pupils often enter the one-teacher schools unable to speak a word of English, yet before the end of a year they speak the language and understand it, simply by hearing it constantly and associating with those who speak it.

3. In the one-teacher schools, pupils are promoted by subjects rather than grades, and often actually make greater progress than those in the graded schools, because the instruction is largely individual.

4. Any pupil in a one-teacher school may recite in the classes in which he can keep up. His progress, therefore, is natural; there is no hindrance.

5. Pupils generally must solve their own problems unaided, and thus develop independence of thought and self-reliance. In this the ungraded schools, though apparently at a disadvantage, are superior.

6. It is easier to safeguard the morals of children in a small school than in a large one.

7. The obstacles and inconveniences of the average rural school prepare the child for the battles of life. It is the wind and the storm that season the oak.

The schools of Colfax County are in general well built and well equipped. Fourteen of the fifty-three one-teacher schools are classed as "standard schools" under the State law.

Many schools other than the 14 already declared standard meet the requirements in nearly all particulars. All the schools

provided for one of the buildings and six others have basement furnaces. A few of the smallest schools are heated with the same kind of stoves that are used in the homes of the pupils.

Only one school in the county has less than one acre of playground and some have as much as two acres. Physical exercise is emphasized, but playground apparatus is not provided nor favored because of the damage to it during the summer vacation in which it can not have proper care.

The majority of the people of the county know little of the objections urged against one-teacher schools. They are satisfied with the organization of the schools they

have and constantly strive to make them better. Arguments for centralized schools with motor transportation do not appeal to them, for they prefer for their children to walk 2 miles to an ungraded school rather than to ride 12 miles, for example, to a graded school.

Supervised Study Increases Promotions by One-Fourth

From 20 to 30 per cent more promotions are made by the students in our classes which have supervised study than in those classes which do not have it. Our supervised study is really supervised. The teacher does not sit at her desk and let the pupils wander about in study, but she goes from desk to desk and sees that intelligent interpretation of the text is going on.

Supervised study in these times is becoming a necessity, because of the large number of homes that have not time to give the children an opportunity to do school work in the home. Moving pictures every night, auto riding every night, radio all the time, dances in between, compel supervised study in the schools if school work is to go forward.T. C. Clendenin, Superintendent of Public Schools, Cairo, Ill.

Dormitories for non-resident students continue to be recognized as an essential part of the high school plant in a number of Montana schools. During the past two years, however, several dormitory homes were discontinued because of low enrollment and consequent increased per capita cost to students.

Responsibility of Schools for Con

"T

servation of Vision

HERE is urgent need in our pub

lic schools for twenty times as many sight-saving classes-special classes for children with seriously defective vision-as now exist," declared Lewis H. Carris, managing director national committee for the prevention of blindness, in an address before school superintendents from all sections of the United States. "There are at present," Mr. Carris said, "approximately 200 sight-saving classes scattered about the country, whereas approximately 5,000 such classes are needed.

"There are in the United States," according to Mr. Carris, "at least 50,000 children with such seriously defective vision that they are unable to keep up with the work of normally sighted chil

dren. In most communities one of three things is happening to these unfortunate children: They must attend school with normally sighted children, thereby fur

"A

ther endangering what little sight they have, and at the same time bearing the stigma of 'dunces'; they are kept out of school altogether and are thereby deprived of an education; or they are sent to schools for the blind where, because of their partial sight, they are frequently used as eyes by the entire school with harmful psychological effects on themselves as well as on the blind children.

"There is need for one sight-saving class in every group of 5,000 school children. There is also need for much more large type material for use in sight-saving classes and in the homes of children with seriously defective vision."

Mr. Carris urged the superintendents to acquaint themselves with the splendid work being carried on in the sight-saving classes in Cincinnati, which, he said, is one of the very few cities having enough of

these classes to take care of all its children with seriously defective vision.

Our Next Ten Years

S THE FUTURE grows out of the past, so any prophecy concerning the way ahead must be based on work already done," said Ella Victoria Dobbs, president of the National Council of Primary Education, in an address, "Our next 10 years," before the council.

"The council began in a rather spontaneous gathering of women," who, finding themselves possessed of common interests and ideals, pledged cooperation toward their attainment. These common ideals were expressed in a platform of three brief pinrciples-"a greater use of activities in the primary school, greater freedom of method for the primary teacher, and greater continuity of purpose through closer cooperation with the kindergarten below and the grades above." Out of their profound faith in the value of self-expression as a means of growth, they adopted a policy of free discussion of a common topic. This led to a campaign for smaller classes, movable furniture, and better equipment, that some of the happy activities of the kindergarten might carry over to the first grade.

"Emphasis upon activities led to more general appreciation of the distinction between mere busy work and purposeful activity. The emphasis shifted still further from the time-filling idea of busy work, till free activities were seen in their full significance as the ultimate test of

what has been accomplished. Instead of being subordinate and secondary, they came to stand out as the goal toward which the teacher's efforts are directed.

"The emphasis upon these points made more significant the demand for bettertrained teachers. Freedom is dangerous in the hands of the unfit. The day is past for the notion that 'anybody can teach little children.' The next decade will undoubtedly show great strides in our understanding and scientific control of problems of early education.

Already the interaction and cooperation between kindergarten and primary have been beneficial on both sides. Mechanical processes are giving way to more natural activities which develop out of daily experience, and our best primary schools appear as good kindergartens grown large-real child gardens. So the next 10 years may be expected to see a similar continuity of purpose throughout the elementary grades. In the developments ahead, we may confidently expect to find our organization standing on a broad and firm foundation of actual accomplishment in which instead of the question 'Can this child do the work of the second grade?' we will say to the grade above 'This is the foundation of accomplishment thus far attained-build upon it.''

Science Interests of Rural and of

Urban Children

Rural-school children in New York State ask many questions in the field of the biological sciences and but few in that of the physical sciences. Cityschool children are more interested in physical than in biological sciences, according to surveys made in a few city

schools in the United States and Canada. These findings were discussed by L. Laurence Palmer, professor of rural education in Cornell University, at a meeting of the American Nature Study Society which was held in Washington, in conjunction with the recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

The New York investigation is based upon correspondence with about 6,000 teachers in each of the past four years. In order to find out what the nature

interests of rural children are Professor Palmer asked the teachers the following

question: "What interesting questions in nature study have your pupils asked of you? Indicate the number of years the child asking the questions has been in school."

The greatest objection that might be raised concerning the results is that the type of assistance in science teaching given the teachers has been reflected in the questions asked, Professor Palmer said. This assistance has been in the form of small manuals-40 to 80 pagesissued and distributed by the Department of Rural Education of Cornell University, dealing with the following subjects: Field of science; invertebrate animals; birds; mammals; reptiles and amphibians; fish; woody plants; herbs; geology, meteorology and astronomy; and agriculture.

Professor Palmer believes that the elementary science interests of rural and city children should be considered in preparing a course of study. So far, he says, there is no distinction either in content or method in any of the State outlines. The differences should be, he says, not so much in content as in approach and method.

The present available data on the scientific interests of city children is not yet comprehensive enough to compare it with the facts found in the New York study, chiefly because it does not cover a long enough period of time, and because it includes senior and junior high-school pupils, as well as those of the elementary school grades. Professor Palmer hopes that the New York study will encourage others to collect from the cities data comparable to that collected by Cornell University during the past four years.— Edith A. Lathrop.

Dresslar. 100 p. 45 plates. (Bulletin, 1924, no. 17.) 45 cents.

Contents: 1. Location of a schoolhouse.-2. Soil and drainage.-3. Protection against dampness.4. Planning.-5. Construction and equipment.6. Lighting.-7. Heating.-8. Ventilation.-9. Toilets.-10. Disposal of sewage.-11. Baths.-12. Swimming pool.-13. Gymnasiums.-14. Playgrounds.15. Laboratories.-16. Assembly rooms.-17. School architecture and school improvement.-Appendix: Orientation of buildings in Southern States. Land-grant college education, 1910 to 1920. Pt. I. History and educational objectives. Ed. by Walton C. John. 51 p. (Bulletin, 1924, no. 30.) 10 cents.

List of references on education for citizenship. 16 p. (Library leaflet no. 30, January, 1925.) 5 cents. Statistical survey of education, 1921-22. Frank M. Phillips. 30 p. (Bulletin, 1924, no. 38.) 5 cents. Statistics of state school systems, 1921-22. Frank M. Phillips. 42 p. (Bulletin, 1924, no. 31.) 5 cents.

The trend of college entrance requirements, 1913-1922. Harry C. McKown. 172 p. (Bulletin, 1924, no. 35.) 20

Schoolhouse Becomes a Hospital for a Day

Paternos (Wash.) Parent-Teacher Association has rendered a unique community service by arranging for a clinic for surgical operations on school children suffering from throat diseases. Diseased tonsils were removed in one day from 26 children, and adenoids from 10 of the 26. The schoolhouse was converted into a temporary hospital. A Wenatchee surgeon, a local doctor, and six trained nurses rendered the skilled service. Except for a noon intermission, the operations were performed continuously from 9 o'clock in the morning until 6 at night.Washington Education Journal.

A

STUDY of the relative value of instruction in large and small classes was conducted in four Ohio cities-namely, Akron, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Toledo, according to P. R. Stevenson, research associate in Ohio State University, in an address before the Educational Research Association.

"Data were secured from 124 elementary classes in grades 2, 5, and 7. The same pupils were taught one semester in the small class and another semester in the large class by the same teacher.

"The results show that, as teachers now teach, the large classes are approximately as effective as classes one-half their size. Of the three grades examined, small classes were of most benefit to the second grade, a little less effective in the fifth grade, and least effective in the seventh grade. Average school procedure in forming size of classes is just the reverse to date.

"In order to determine the progress of pupils in large and small classes, a series of standardized tests in arithmetic, language, grammar, spelling, reading rate, and reading comprehension, were

given at the beginning of the experiment, after a period of 10 weeks, and at the end of another 10-week period.

"Common sense leads us to believe that there must be some point beyond which the size of a class can not be increased without decreasing the efficiency of teaching. Bright children can be taught to advantage in large classes in all the The dull elementary grades tested. pupils, on the other hand, can do their best work when classes are relatively small. The average pupils receive most efficient instruction in medium size and

large classes.

"One of the necessary steps in future studies of class size is to determine the

type of teaching technique that is best adapted to small classes and large

classes. It is evident from the results that teachers either loaf on the job when the classes are small or that their efforts to help the pupils have the contrary effect. The main advantage of small classes, according to the opinion of most educators, is that the teachers can give individual instruction. Either this individual instruction hinders the children in their development or the teachers do not give it."

IGOROUS emphasis should be laid from the beginning on thought-getting and the subordination of the mechanics of reading to thoughtful interpretation," Dr. William S. Gray, of the University of Chicago, told the National Society for the Study of Education in presenting the chairman's report of the national committee on reading.

Doctor Gray reviewed the work of the committee as follows: "The national committee on reading was appointed by Dr. Jno. J. Tigert, United States Commissioner of Education, in 1923, at the suggestion of a representative group of school men.

The specific task assigned

to the committee was to prepare recommendations concerning important issues in the teaching of reading for the use of school officers and teachers. The recommendations were to be based as far as possible on the results of scientific studies, and on expert opinion where sufficient evidence was lacking. The committee carried on its work for approximately two years, meeting at fre

quent intervals for group conferences, criticisms, and constructive suggestions.

"The report of the committee appears as part 1 of the Twenty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. It considers practically all the major problems of reading instruction as indicated by the following topics: Reading activities in school and in other life activities; essential objectives of reading instruction; an organized program of reading instruction for the grades and high school; the problems of word recognition; the relation of reading to literature and to the content subjects; the materials of reading instruction; provision for individual differences; the use of tests; diagnosis and remedial work; and how to reorganize reading instruction in a school system.

"The adoption of the major recommendations of the committee should result in vitalizing and improving the teaching of reading."

A summary of the committee's outstanding recommendations appears on page 3 of the cover of this issue.

ANDERSEN, W. N. A manual for school officers-superintendents, principals, and board members. New York and London, The Century co., 1925. xvii, 383 p. 8°. (The Century education series, ed. by C. E. Chadsey.)

This comprehensive handbook for school officers of all kinds offers practical suggestions, concrete illustrations, and helpful information designed to aid in the solution of a great variety of administrative problems and situations, particularly of the smaller school systems. It is based on tried and accepted educational principles.

CLEVELAND

FOUNDATION COMMITTEF.

SURVEY COMMISSION. Survey of higher education in Cleveland. Cleveland, Ohio, The Cleveland foundation committee [1925] xv, 11-487 p. 12°.

The commission making this survey was composed of Dr. George F. Zook, of the Bureau of Education, chairman, and eight other members. A comprehensive study was made of the needs of Cleveland in the several fields of higher education, with particular reference to the development of Western Reserve University and the Case School of Applied Science in some cooperative organization to meet these needs. In addition to the academic part of the college curriculum, the facilities and needs for commercial, professional, and technical studies, and for graduate work and research, were investigated. The report also contains constructive suggestions for the future development of higher education in Cleveland.

GESELL, ARNOLD. The mental growth of

the pre-school child. A psychological outline of normal development from birth to the sixth year, including a system of developmental diagnosis. New York, The Macmillan company, 1925. x, 447 p. illus., tables, diagrs. 8°.

The aim of this work is to give a systematic view of the entire pre-school period of development. The author notes that current tendencies in child

hygiene and education are bringing the pre-school years into a new perspective. The basic data of this study furnish an outline of the psychology of infancy, by bringing into systematic view crosssection behavior pictures of the ascending stages of development. The emphasis throughout is on the normal aspects of behavior. The application of norms of development to problems of developmental diagnosis and supervision is treated in the concluding sections.

HARRIS, GARRARD. Elements of conservation. Richmond, Va., Johnson publishing company [1924] viii, 214 p. front., illus. 12°.

A textbook such as this for school use, on the practical subject of conservation of natural resources, is an unusual publication. The volume is especially adapted to conditions in the Southern States.

LIGDA, PAUL. The teaching of elementary algebra. Boston, New York [etc.] Houghton Mifflin company [1925] xvii, 256 p. diagrs. 12°.

Elementary algebra, in its traditional form, is said to be the least satisfactory of our secondary

school mathematical courses. The author analyzes the reasons for this situation, and proposes a remedy, while discussing the following fundamental topics: Lack of proper motivation, the inductive method, relationsnips, use of the function concept in unifying the subject, fundamentals, and the characteristic formula. The final chapter is a justification of algebra in school and in life, showing the practical value of algebra in everyday activities. OTIS, ARTHUR S. Statistical method in educational measurement. Yonkers-onHudson, N. Y., World book company, 1925. xi, 337 p. tables, diagrs. 8°. (Measurement and adjustment series, ed. by L. M. Terman)

The purpose of this manual is to equip teachers and preparatory students of education with the knowledge of statistical method required for interpreting and understanding the results of educational measurement. The principles of statistical procedure are here presented in a concrete and readily intelligible form, in distinction from other books on the subject which are designed for advanced graduate students of psychology and education. SEARS, JESSE B. The school survey; a textbook on the use of school surveying in the administration of public schools. Boston, New York [etc.] Houghton Mifflin company [1925] xxx, 440 p. tables, diagrs. 12°. (Riverside textbooks in education, ed. by E. P. Cubberley)

During the past fifteen years the method of experimental research has been applied in education, and educational procedure of all kinds has come to be based more and more upon scientifically ascertained facts rather than upon mere experience or opinion. The practice of making surveys of school systems and of educational institutions has spread widely and exercised a great influence during the period named. This practice naturally culminates in the establishment of permanent bureaus of school research in cities and other communities. Prof. Sears's volume is designed to meet the need of a concise manual of the principles and technique of school surveys, for the use of students of education, and for the guidance of school administrators. SISSON, EDWARD O. Educating for freedom. New York, The Macmillan company, 1925. xxiii, 225 p. 12°. (The Modern teachers series, ed. by W. C. Bagley)

The attainment of ordered freedom for all is the ideal of education in a democracy. This volume calls attention to the fact that along with our present great expansion in population, in material resources, and in scientific and mechanical power, there are certain conditions in American life to-day which are cause for deep concern and which are to be met by proper education. The author analyzes the present civic and moral status of the American people and the tendencies for the future. Education is discussed with reference to freedom, union, patriotism, civic duty, and world order. Attention is also given to the educative use of history and to Abraham Lincoln and American education.

STEVENS, EDWIN B., and ELLIOTT, EDWARD C. Unit costs of higher education, reviewed and presented by the Educational finance inquiry commission under the auspices of the American council on education, Washington,

D. C. New York, The Macmillan company, 1925. xv, 212 p. tables, diagrs., forms. 8°. (The Educational finance inquiry, vol. XIII.)

The study made by the educational finance inquiry commission includes the tax-supported institutions of higher education, as belonging to the same system with the public elementary and secondary schools. This volume contains the following for a typical group of State higher institutions: (a) a detailed description of a technique for the classification of institutional expenditures, and (b) the correlation of these expenditures with student and other services so as to display definite, accurate, and comparable cost data. The unit cost technique here developed will probably be found readily adaptable as well to privately controlled institutions of higher education.

TAYLOR, HOWARD. Introduction to educational psychology; a manual for an introductory course. Baltimore, War

wick & York, inc., 1925. 172 p. 12°.

This book presents in outline form the leading facts and problems of educational psychology which the author considers of vital importance in teaching. The material is chosen and organized from the point of view of the student who is just beginning to prepare for teaching as a profession and is in shape to use either as a syllabus in connection with any elementary textbook in educational psychology or as an outline of the course in place of a text. References for reading are given at the beginning of each chapter.

THOMAS, JOHN M., and ESPEnshade, A. HOWRY, eds. Bible readings for schools and colleges. New York, The Macmillan company, 1925. xix, 288 p. 8°.

The practice of reading a selection from the Bible at the opening exercises of public schools is now very generally observed in most States of the Union. The selections in this volume have been chosen in order to make available the great passages from both the Old and New Testaments for reading without repetition in the course of a school year. The book is also suitable for use in private schools and colleges that hold chapel services. A table of passages appropriate to special days and occasions is included. The text used is that of the authorized version. THURSTONE, L. L. The fundamentals of statistics. New York, The Macm llan company, 1925. xvi, 237 p. tables, diagrs. 8°. (Experimental education series, ed. by M. V. O'Shea.)

Beginners in the study of statistics, and also workers in mental measurement who desire a logical interpretation of the mathematical procedure involved, will find this text adapted to their use. Students of the results of current educational research need explanations as here given of the technical phraseology commonly employed in the reports of such work. This manual may serve as an introduction to subsequent study of more comprehensive textbooks of statistics.

WRIGHT, JOSEPH, ed. Selected readings in municipal problems. Boston, New York [etc.] Ginn and company [1925]. xviii, 961 p. diags., forms. 8°.

This volume comprises selected readings by standard authorities on the leading problems of government and administration of the modern city, with some attention also to its historical development from ancient and medieval times. One section is devoted to public education in cities, with articles by H. B. Davis, W. S. Deffenbaugh, F. W. Ballou, and Bruce M. Watson. The compiler, Joseph Wright, is superintendent of the library for municipal research at Harvard University.