gravity in their characters, sentiments and style, though they
fell occasionally into bombast or triviality, and made their
verses somewhat awkwardly. The same may be assumed of the
tragedies of Atilius, C. Titius, C. Julius Caesar Strabo, Varro, Q.
Cicero, Cassius of Parma, and also probably of those of Santra
and Asinius Pollio, though the last of them seems to have been
original in his subjects. The early Imperial period, during which
the attention of educated men was again turned to the ancient
Roman tragic writers, produced also new plays, of course with
more technical finish. Here we may mention L. Varius' Thyestes,
Ovid's Medea, Pupius and also Gracchus, Turranius, Mam. Scaurus,
Pomponius Secundus and, above all, the tragedies of Seneca.
But these compositions were, doubtless, for the most part book-
dramas, which did not pretend to popular effect, and only courted
the applause of the poet's friends at recitations. Among the later
tragic writers only Curiatius Maternus is of any consequence.

1. Tragicorum latin. reliquiae, rec. ORIBBECK, Lps.2 1871. Textual criticism
in EBÄHRENS (JJ. 105, 621), BERGK (op. 1, 319, and against this RIBBECK, RhM.
29, 209). FGWELCKER, die griech. Tragödien (Rhein. Mus. Suppl. 2, 3), Bonn
1841, p. 1332-1484 and ORIBBECK, die röm. Tragödie d. Republ., Lpz. 1875; cf.
likewise AREIFFERSCHEID JB. 1880 3, 265. It is open to question whether, as
RIBBECK supposes (röm. Trag. 24, 204), ancient Roman tragedies, such as Livius'
Ino and Ennius' Athamas were modernised in the first century A.D.-CHORSTMANN,
de vett. tragg. rom. lingua, Münst. 1870. LBRUNEL, de tragoedia ap. Rom. circa
princip. Aug. corrupta, Par. 1884.

2

2. The number of tragic poets known to us by more or less explicit mention amounts at the utmost to 36; that of their plays to 150 at most (lists in RIBBECK trag. p. 363; röm. Trag. 634); only those of Seneca have been preserved. The subjects of the Trojan cycle were especially popular. A general criticism in QUINT. 10, 1, 97.

3. Tragedy also consisted of portions of sedate and of more excited character, of dialogue and of lyric parts which were sung-diverbium (deverbium) and cantica. The dialogue was principally in iambic trimeters, admitting, however, in the Republican period, of spondees (and so also anapaests and dactyls) in all places except the last, and was only treated with more purity after the time of Augustus. The cantica show little variety in their metres, ana paests and cretics being the most frequent, besides which we have also trochaic and iambic tetrameters, and dactylic lines. They were accompanied by a tibia (Cic. or. 184. de or. 1, 254. Tusc. 1, 107. HOR. AP. 215), and habitués were skilled enough to know the piece about to be performed from the prelude of the tibicen (Cic. Acad. pr. 2, 20, cf. de or. 3, 196. DONAT. de com. p. 12, 11 R).-Regarding the splendid mounting: Cic. 13 fam. 7, 1. Hor. E. 2, 1, 203. RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 664.—For crepidata (from crepida, κpηrís, equivalent to cothurnus) denoting Roman tragedy with Greek subjectmatter, see § 14, 2.

4. In Cicero's time the eminent actor Aesopus (see RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 674) brought tragedies (espec. those of Pacuvius and Accius) very much into vogue: R. L.

C

a

324

225

see e.g. Cic. Sest. 120, fin. 5, 63. Tusc. 1, 106. Lael. 24. Other tragoediarum actores are Rupilius (Cic. off. 1, 114), Catienus and Fufius (HOR. S. 2, 3, 60),/54 Apelles (SUET. Calig. 33), Glyko (Pers. 5, 9), Apollinaris (SUET. Vesp. 19).—In Cicero's time tragedies were written in three acts: see Cic. ad Q. fr. 1, 1, 46.575 RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 641.

5. A chorus in the Greek manner was impossible for the Romans for the simple reason of the Senate occupying the orchestra. Choric dancing (cf. also § 1, 4) being thus excluded, we find now and then a number of performers simultaneously on the stage, which was wider for this reason (A. MÜLLER, Bühnenaltert. 19), and singing together (catervae atque concentus, Cic. de or. 3, 196; cf. COLUMELLA 12, 2; cf. § 16, 5). In the ancient Roman tragedians a certain imitation of the Greek choric songs is not improbable, because they were mere translators; this is supported by such titles as Bacchae, Eumenides (cf. Cic. Rosc. Am. 66, Pis. 46), Hellenes, Myrmidones, Phinidae, Phoenissae, Stasiastae, Troades, as well as by numerous details. The account of Lucullus, e.g. in HOR. E. 1, 6, 40 (cf. PLUT. Lucull. 39) presupposes a chorus (§ 16, 4). Cf. POLYB. 30, 13. In Andronicus' Ino (§ 94, 5) the chorus sang hymnum Triviae (TER. MAUR. 1934 GL. 6, 383); in Naevius' Lycurgus we find a chorus of bacchanals, in Ennius' Iphigenia (GELL. 19, 10, 12) and Medea (fr. 14=EUR. Med. 1251) there is a chorus; in Pacuvius is a stasimum (MAR. VICT. GL. 6, 77), and in Antiopa, Chryses, Niptra there are also parts resembling a chorus. A chorus Proserpinae is mentioned by VARRO LL. 6, 94. Traces of choruses are more scarce in Accius, though evident in the Bacchae and Philocteta. Pomponius Secundus (§ 284, 7) and Seneca would not, it may be supposed, have composed choric songs (to mark the acts) without the example of the ancient poets, and Horace (AP. 193) would not have discussed so fully the arrangement of the Greek chorus, if it had not existed in the Roman drama. Cf. concerning a dexter actor MANIL. astr. 5, 485 aequabit choros gestu. PHAEDR. 5, 7, 25 tunc chorus ignotum modo reducto canticum insonuit, cuius haec fuit sententia: Laetare, incolumis Roma, salvo Principe. GRYSAR, d. Canticum u. d. Chor in der röm. Trag., Wien 1855 SBer. d. Wien. Ak. 15, 365. OJAHN, Herm. 2, 227. RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 637.

6. In the Imperial period the tragic representations resolved themselves into their component parts, and degenerated into soli by virtuosi (singers and pantomimists). For the pantomimi see above § 8, 13. Just as these reproduced tragic scenes by gesticulation, so the singers executed tragic arias in a costume corresponding to their rôle. Regarding Nero's passion for such performances § 286, 9. Cf. LFRIEDLÄNDER, Sittengesch. 25, 404. GBOISSIER, de la signification des mots cantare et saltare tragoediam, Rev. archéolog. N.S. 4 (1861), 333.

14. The (fabula) praetexta is the Roman tragedy of a national character; in the absence of indigenous heroic legends, historic subjects were adopted and, as a rule, by poets who also wrote tragedies (on Greek subjects and after Greek originals). Thus Naevius (Clastidium, Romulus), Ennius (Ambracia, Sabinae), Pacuvius (Paullus), Accius (Aeneadae s. Decius, Brutus), and Balbus Iter ad Lentulum; as dramas for reading Pomponius Secundus composed an Aeneas, Persius a play of which the subject is unknown, Curiatius Maternus a Domitius and a Cato, an unknown poet a Marcellus (?) The tragedy of Octavia claims to be

242

a praetexta. In form and character these plays were made after
tragic models, they were even more elaborately furnished, as the
themes were of national interest, and perhaps it was only their
style which, in agreement with the subjects, was less sublime.

1. The form praetexta is used by ASINIUS POLLIO (in Cic. fam. 10, 32, 3.5). 33 F HORACE (AP. 288), PROBUS (vita Persii, p. 237 Jahn), FESTUS (223; cf. 352); the designation praetextata prevails in the later grammarians.

2. DIOMEDES GL. 1, 489 prima species est togatarum (national dramas) quae
praetextatae dicuntur, in quibus imperatorum negotia agebantur et publica et reges
romani vel duces inducuntur, personarum dignitate et sublimitate tragoediis similes.
praetextatae autem dicuntur quia fere regum vel magistratuum qui praetexta utuntur
in eiusmodi fabulis acta comprehenduntur. (Cf. praetextati in magistratibus, in
sacerdotiis, Liv. 34, 7. Also NoN. 541.) DIOMED. 1.1. 490 togata praetextata a
tragoedia differt quod in tragoedia heroes inducuntur,
in praetextata autem

Brutus vel Decius, item Marcellus (§ 94, 6) (vel Africanus et his similia, is
added by RHABANUS MAURUS, Opera 1, 47 ed. Colon. 1627: is this credible?? See
RIBBECK, Com. p. CXVIII). MANIL. 5, 483 (dexter actor) magnos heroas aget civisque
togatos. DONAT. de com. p. 9 R. tragoedia, si latina argumentatio sit, praetexta
dicitur. EUANTH. de com. p. 7 R. praetextatas, a dignitate personarum tragicarum
ex latina historia. LYDUs de mag. 1, 40 (tragedy) téμvetai els xpyπiðátav (§ 13, 3.
DONAT. Ter. Ad. prol. 7) καὶ πραιτεξτάταν· ὧν ἡ μὲν κρηπιδάτα ἑλληνικὰς ἔχει ὑποθέσεις, ἡ
dè #paiтežtáta pwuaïkás. TACITUS dial. 2, inaccurately, designates Curiatius Maternus'
Cato as tragoedia (cf. PLAUT. Amphitr. prol. 41. 93. Capt. 62). SEN. ep. 1, 8, 8 means
praetextae in speaking of togatae; see § 17, 1. Performance of the praetextae per-
haps at ludi triumphales (GRÖPER). We may fairly conclude that separate portions
of Greek tragedies were utilised, just as in the togatae (below, § 17) use was made of
individual details in the new Attic comedy. Traces of the utilising of praetextae in
Livy? e.g. in the siege of Veii 5, 21 (cf. in the same chapter § 8 haec ad ostenta-
tionem scaenae gaudentis miraculis aptiora, see RIBBECK, RhM. 36, 321). Perhaps
we may also refer to a praetexta the beautiful Pompeian wall-painting (copied in
the Mus. Borbon. 1, 34. VISCONTI, iconogr. rom. 3, 56), which among all those found
there stands alone as historical, and represents the dying Sophoniba attended
by Scipio and Masinissa; see OJAHN, der Tod der Sophoniba, Bonn 1859.
AREIFFERSCHEID, JB. 1880 3, 265.-Collection of the remains of the praetextae in
RIBBECK, trag. 2 277. Cf. FGWELCKER, die griech. Trag. (1841) 1344. 1388. 1402.

15. The earliest of the different kinds of comedy (cf. § 12) is the palliata, on Greek subjects and imitated from Greek originals, especially the New Attic Comedy. Its period extends over the whole 6th century U.c. To this belong Andronicus, Naevius, Plautus, Ennius, Trabea, Atilius, Licinius Imbrex, Juventius, Statius Caecilius, Luscius Lanuvinus, Terence, Plautius, Turpilius: a series of names on the one hand representing a scale of increasing refinement in style, but on the other hand also of decreasing originality with regard to the treatment of the Greek originals. The first composers of palliatae endeavoured to assimilate their pieces to the popular taste by various additions of a local or temporal character, or by making them more coarse;

the later ones, Terence e.g., despised attractions of this kind, but in so doing lost the popular sympathies, which were turned to the more amusing style of the togatae, Atellanae and mimi. The consequence was that the production of new palliatae ceased, and if plays of this class were wanted, the stage had to fall back upon older literature. The plays of Plautus and Terence subsisted on the stage after the establishment of the Empire (cf. § 99. 109). The original productions during this latter period, e.g. by Vergilius Romanus and M. Pomponius Bassulus, were confined to small circles and remained without effect.

1. DIOMED. GL. 1, 489 graecas fabulas ab habitu palliatas Varro ait nominari. PLAUT. Curc. 2, 3, 9 isti Graeci palliati etc. Pallium graecanicum (SUET. Dom. 4)= iμáriov éXXŋvikóv (LUCIAN. merc. cond. 25). SEN. controv. 9, 26, 13 cum latine declamaverunt, toga posita, sumpto pallio, graece declamabant. The palliata was also briefly styled comoedia and the poets belonging to it comici (RITSCHL, Parerga 189). Hence DIOMED. GL. 1, 490 togata tabernaria a comoedia differt, quod in comoedia graeci ritus inducuntur personaeque graecae in illa vero latinae Terentius et Caecilius comoedias scripserunt. In this way QUINT. 11, 8, 178 mentions Demetrius and Stratokles as maximos actores comoediarum of his time, the following description and ib. 182 showing that palliatae are understood. So also FRONTO ep. p. 54 and 211 Nab. (comoedias, Atellanas). 106 (sententias comes ex comoedis) etc.

2. The Old Attic Comedy was too much connected with its own period to be fit for imitation by another nation and in a different period (on Vergilius Romanus, the imitator of Old Attic Comedy, see § 332, 7). On the other hand, the New Comedy, the nearest in time, in the 6th century u.c. held the stage, and was by its typical delineation of character and general human bearing especially fitted to be transplanted to foreign soil. In it we notice especially Menander, next to him Diphilos and Philemon. Others are mentioned by GELL. 2, 23, 1 comoedias lectitamus nostrorum poetarum sumptas ac versas de Graecis, Menandro aut Posidippo aut Apollodoro aut Alexide et quibusdam item aliis comicis. BUGGE, de causis neglectae ap. Rom. comoediae Graecorum veteris et mediae, Christiania 1823.

3. On the dying out of the pall. (?) in the Imperial period, see M. AUREL. comm. 11, 6 ἡ νέα κωμῳδία πρὸς τί ποτε παρείληπται, ἢ κατ ̓ ὀλίγον ἐπὶ τὴν ἐκ μιμήσεως φιλοτεχνίαν ineрpún. A mere exercise of the pen was the experiment of Surdinus, ingeniosus adulescens (in the Augustan period, § 268, 6), a quo graecae fabulae eleganter in sermonem latinum conversae sunt (SEN. suas. 7, 12). Comoedias audio in PLIN. ep. 5, 3, 2 should be understood of recitation (as in the case of Vergilius Romanus). On the traces of the acting of comedies in late Imperial times, see LFRIEDLÄNDER, Sittengesch. Roms 25, 566.

4. A curious classification of the poets of palliatae (Caecilius Statius, Plautus, Naevius, Licinius, Atilius, Terentius, Turpilius, Trabea, Luscius, Ennius) by Volcacius Sedigitus, in GELL. 15, 24, see § 147, 3.

5. The fragments of the written palliatae

(except Plautus and Terence) fragm., Lps. 1873. For textual

especially in ORIBBECK, Comicorum rom. criticism cf. THBERGK Op. 1, 379. HAKOCH JJ. 109, 137. FBÜCHELER RhM. 29, 195. KDZIATZKO ib. 31, 376. ASPENGEL, die lat. Komödie (address), München 1878 (Bayr. Akad.).

16. From the New Comedy the palliata borrowed the general spirit of the later over-refined Hellenism with its moral inertia and levity, and in particular the plots, characters, construction and outward form, even in details, e.g. the prologue and epilogue. The palliata being without a chorus like the New Comedy, each piece is divided into portions of dialogue (diverbia) and menodies (cantica). In the first the poets of the palliatae curtailed, for their audiences, the loquacity of their originals, while they introduced more action, especially by means of the so-called 'contamination,' being moreover less limited in the number of their performers than their originals. The dialogue is generally in iambic senarii; in the cantica we have, besides septenarii, a frequent use of cretics and bacchics, the latter proportionately strict, the prosody of the senarii with numerous and large concessions to the popular pronunciation. The delivery, in imitation of the Greek custom, consisted partly of declamation (without musical accompaniment) partly of recitative and song; these two last were accompanied by a tibia. The performers were not masked until after the time of Terence.

1. Description of the palliata esp. in RIBBECK, röm. Dicht. 1, 57. The chief characters in both are miserly fathers, spendthrift sons, cunning slaves, greedy and amorous hetaerae, low panders, coarse and boastful soldiers, starved parasites. MANIL. 5, 472 ardentis iuvenes raptasque in amore puellas elusosque senes agilesque per omnia servos. APUL. flor. 16, 64 et leno perfidus (thus AARLT reads for periurus) et amator fervidus et servulus callidus et amica inludens et uxor inhibens (? inprudens OCRUSIUS) et mater indulgens et patruus obiurgator et sodalis opitulator et miles gloriator (thus LTRAUBE, RhM. 39, 630 reads for proeliator), sed et parasiti edaces et parentes tenaces et meretrices procaces. ISIDOR. orig. 18, 46 comoedi sunt qui privatorum hominum acta dictis ac gestu canebant atque stupra virginum et amores meretricum in suis fabulis exprimebant. On the personal names in comedy see Donat. ad Ter. Ad. 1, 1, 1 and Andr. 1, 3, 21 and RITSCHL. op. 3, 303. 333. 350.

2. EUANTH. de com. p. 7 R. comoediae motoriae sunt aut statariae aut mixtae. motoriae turbulentae, statariae quietiores, mixtae ex utroque actu consistentes. According to this the Plautine plays are nearly all motoriae, (but e.g. Capt. and Trin. are statariae), the Terentian mostly mixtae, Phormio is a motoria, Heautontim. a stataria (Heaut. prol. 36). In agreement with this the actors (cf. DONAT. ad Ter. Ad. prol. 24 and QUINTIL. 11, 3, 178) and then also the orators (Cic. Brut. 116. 239) were divided into statarii and motorii. According to their contents the pieces are either character-plays (e.g. Plautus' Aul., and likewise e.g. Mil. Truc.) or strictly intrigues (e.g. Bacch. Pseud. Pers. Poen.) with a variety of by-plots and episodes : the dramatic expedients are also tolerably uniform, as e.g. the surprises, modes of duping, disguises, confusions, recognitions, etc.

:

3. DIOMEDES GL. 1, 491 latinae comoediae chorum non habent, sed duobus membris tantum constant, diverbio et cantico (cf. RITSCHL, op. 3, 34). primis autem temporibus, sicuti adserit Tranquillus (§ 347), omnia quae in scena versantur in comoedia age