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rates paid for that kind of labor for a proportionate rate of the time taken to do it.

12. Churning five hundred and twenty hours, or one hour a week, at five cents per hour amounts to $120 in ten years; to thirteen dollars in one year, and twenty-five cents for each week.

13. Working, salting, and printing the butter is estimated to occupy the time of one person half a day every week, worth fifty cents a week, and amounting to twenty-six dollars in one year, and $260 in ten years. 14. The interest on cost of dairy-house is charged at six per cent., as that is calculated to last a long time, and may also serve other purposes. 15. The interest on cost of dairy utensils is properly charged at ten per cent., because the wear and tear upon them is great, and they will be about used up at the end of the ten years, and the owner will receive nothing on the interest of the capital invested.

16. The usual commission of three cents a pound, on what is considered an average production of one hundred and fifty pounds per annum.

17. Credits. In estimating credits I have allowed eight dollars for the calf each year.

18. The manure is estimated at five loads per cow each year, and at two dollars per load amounts to ten dollars in one year, and $100 per cow in ten years.

19. The sour milk I have valued at ten dollars per cow a year, which is less than one cent a quart, and it is considered worth that for feeding pigs or calves.

20. At the end of the ten years the old cows will still be worth something for beef, and I have valued them at twenty dollars each.

21, 22, 23, and 24, include the quantity of butter made, and its cost, as made from poor, medium, good, and extra cows.

25. I, therefore, conclude that the average cost of making a pound of butter in Bucks county at present prices is not less than thirty cents per pound. It oftener costs more than it is made for less. This is intended to be the average for a year. Perhaps in summer it can be made for a few cents less per pound, but in winter it will cost more. I have not taken the time of year the cows come in into the account, as the dairyman will regulate that to his own interest.

The second part of the question inquires how the cost of making a pound of butter can be reduced to a minimum or its lowest point. I answer first, by lessening the cost of cows, of food, and of labor; second, by the propitious influence of favorable seasons; third, by assiduous care in promoting the comfort of our cows; fourth, by feeding them to the fullest capacity consistent with their health; fifth, by selecting, breeding, and keeping only the best; sixth, by bestowing upon the product they yield (milk) our greatest care and skill.

Let me give a case or two that came under my own observation last year, that illustrates my meaning upon this point. Farmer A had good cowsgave them good care, fed them well, and they averaged him two hundred pounds of butter for each cow per annum. Farmer B had only an average lot of cows to begin with-fed and cared for them indifferently, and they averaged him only one hundred pounds of butter per cow. With better care and better feeding they should have averaged at least one hundred and fifty pounds per cow. Farmer E had an extra cow, and although he fed her but little, if any more than did farmer A, yet his cow made him three hundred pounds of butter. What now is the relative cost of a pound of butter as made by these three farmers? I answer, that it is very nearly represented by the figures of twenty-two and a half cents for

farmer A, forty-five cents for farmer B, fifteen cents for farmer E, and thirty cents a pound for farmer C, or the average farmer whose cows, feeding them as previously stated, yield him an average of one hundred and fifty pounds of butter per cow.

Mr. Reeder's essay being open for discussion, Mr. HAZARD, of Chester county, (secretary of the Guénon commission,) made a statement of the cost of making butter in Chester county, in which he fixed the amount at thirty-one cents, and the average yield of each cow at one hundred and fifty-two pounds per year.

In answer to the question as to how the cost could be reduced to a minimum, Mr. REEDER replied by advising an increase in the food and care of the cows, improvement in the quality of the butter, and increased yield of the cows.

The SECRETARY stated that while the estimate of Mr. Hazard of one hunhundred and fifty-two pounds per cow was, no doubt, correct, yet our best dairymen made it a rule to discard any cow not making two hundred pounds per year, and that the additional yield of fifty pounds per cow would help very much to reduce the cost to a minimum. He also stated that circulars asking the cost per pound, of both winter and summer butter, had been sent to two hundred practical dairymen in the State—that each one had been furnished with the proper items for both sides of the account. The average of these returns placed the cost of the average pound of butter at fifteen and one half cents for summer, and and seventeen cents for winter. The average selling price, clear of commission and other expenses, was nineteen and one third cents for summer, and twenty-five and three fourths for winter.

Mr. HAZARD directed attention to the fact that in these estimates it did not follow that the margin of profit was represented by the difference between cost and value in the market, for the former included the labor of the owner and a fair allowance for the use of the land.

On motion, the discussion was then closed, and the Board adjourned untill half past seven, P. M.

At an adjourned meeting of the Pennsylvania Board of Agriculture, held May 30, 1878, at half past seven, P. M.,

Vice President BEEBE in the chair.

Minutes of previous session read and approved.

The Committee on Credentials of new members reported that C. C. Musselman, of Somerset, was entitled to a membership in the Board, and that they advise that Mr. Eves, of Columbia, be admitted to the privileges of a member at this meeting, and that he produce at next meeting the proper evidence to show that his society is entitled to a bounty from the county. They also recommended that the question of the right of the Rich Hill Fair Association to a membership in the Board be left open until next meeting. Report accepted and committee discharged.

On motion of J. P. EDGE, the term of membership of Mr. Musselman was fixed at two years.

On motion of Mr. KELLER, the Board proceeded to fix the time and place of the next meeting, when, on motion of Mr. HAMILTON, the question was referred to the Executive Committee, with instructions to report at next session.

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Essays being in order, the following was offered:

THE ECONOMICAL APPLICATION OF BARN-YARD MANURE.

By Colonel JAMES YOUNG, Member from Dauphin.

The question of applying barn-yard manure to the soil seems to be such a plain one, and so thoroughly understood, that probably the one to whom the subject has been assigned will present nothing new or startling to this body. But sometimes it is well to pass over a beaten path-in fact wellbeaten roads are the best if kept in order, and the ruts and uneven places repaired, and this holds good occasionally, even in the application of barnyard manure. In traveling over this familiar road again, we will stop at three important places-when, where and how barn-yard manure should be applied.

. When this nourishment to the soil should be given is a matter of no minor importance. If there is a time for every thing else, there is a time for this feature of husbandry. If thrown over the ground in the spring, manure, such as is usually used, is bound to absorb moisture; it fails to rot in time to do the most good; it has not full opportunity to fix with the soil, and it is liable to interfere with, as well as promote the growth of the crops. Assuming, then, that manure is best applied in the fall or winter, it ought not to be forgotten that in heavy clay land the application should be earlier than on light soils. And however good the soil in Pennsylvania, one application of manure will not last a life-time. It should be spread at intervals as long as crops are gathered; and the heavier the crops the greater the necessity for skillful, systematic manuring.

Where manure should be applied is well worth consideration. The kind of soil ought to be understood; its depth; the amount of manure required per acre; and the character of the land generally; whether liable to wash, or to hold all that is placed upon it to stengthen it. Manure should be applied on all land, even that given to pasture; for from the latter there is a constant drain of milk and flesh, and much of the droppings at, and and in going to and from the barn-yard; and there is nothing naturally to take the place of this loss but a portion of the droppings of the cattle, and what the rain and storms may contain. Therefore, much more is carried of than put on, and unless the land is fed from some source, the drain continues to the detriment, and finally to the utter wearing out of our once choicest meadows.

How manure should be applied seems to be the most important point of all, as it embraces when and where to apply this great fertilizer. We all believe in manure in some form. All successful farmers east of the Allegheny mountains use the gatherings of the barn-yard, (that is, that can be gathered up with the manure fork,) and we will refer to that source of supply first. With good, level land, and a good deep soil, if the land is liable to be greatly exhausted by annual drains of crops raised as crops usually are, the manure ought to be well, carefully, and evenly spread, and in such quantities as experience demonstrates is best for that particular land.

After having been spread over the land, the question arises, ought the manure to be allowed to remain on the surface, or should it be plowed under? If distributed shortly before putting in wheat, plowing under seems to be the only alternative. If after oats, the land should be plowed deep, the manure well spread on, and the ground re-plowed lightly, if there

is time. If for corn, plow early in the fall, and in the winter, when you have the time, spread on the manure, and at the proper time re-plow lightly before putting in the corn. If you have not time to plow in the fall, haul on and spread the manure when you have the opportunity during the winter, and let it remain, and plow in the spring at the usual time. Where land is very hilly, unless the manure is plowed in soon after it is applied, it is liable to wash off.

The turning under of clover constitutes one form of applying manure, and a very good form, as all experienced farmers know. For what would we do without our clover to help bring up our lands? Where you can turn down in the summer a very heavy clover crop, and then prepare the same land for wheat, it is an excellent way of manuring, but it is always better to let the clover mature well before turning under than to hasten the work.

Then there is one kind of manure that can be gathered in out barn-yards, and a manure of great value. I refer to the liquid. Perhaps the best time for the application of this article on corn ground is in the winter, when you can best drive on the surface. It can be applied in many places very profitably in the spring on the grass fields and on the potatoes. In the latter part of the summer is probably the best time to apply the liquid to hay fields; that is, after the grass is cut. Then pass to the ground intended for corn, as soon as the grass is off. As a whole, you cannot go wrong in the application of the liquid. Those who have not tried the liquid I advise to give it a test, and to do so carefully and thoroughly. Within twelve months you will be joining with others in testifying to its marvelous effects, and its adaptability for rejuvenating soil along with the other barn-yard manure.

In conclusion, and by way of review, whatever you do do not fail to apply barn-yard manure. Apply it steadily, persistently, and as long as you raise crops it will help you to prosper. If you do not use it your good lands will become poor, and your poor lands will become poorer, and at last the scriptural injunction will be applied to you in another form, for from him that hath not (his soil replenished with good manure) shall have taken from him what (poor soil) he hath.

The essay was ably discussed by Messrs. Beebe, Darlington, Shallcross, and Banks, and the able handling and defense given the question by Colonel Young was much commended. It is to be regretted that the space at our disposal will not permit us to give this discussion in full.

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On motion of Mr. BANKS, Thomas Meehan, Botanist of the Board, was invited to deliver an address upon

PLANT LIFE, OR WHAT MAY BE LEARNED FROM A TREE. (Mr. Meehan illustrated his address by rapid and explanatory sketches on a black-board, and was listened to with great attention. It is to be regretted that the address could not be preserved verbatim, but the following contains its main points, though much of its value is lost for the want of Mr. Meehan's terse and plain language.)

Mr. Meehan pointed out that observations, seemingly of little moment, were often of great importance in leading to a correct knowledge of nature's laws, and that this was especially true of those little things going on around the farmer and gardener, and which he might see every

day. An important law on plant life could now be illustrated by the street trees of Doylestown.

He first called attention to the fact that the maple trees had this season produced seeds in unusual abundance. Upon those trees which produced the largest crops of seeds the foliage is now almost exhausted. Upon the black-board were made several diagrams, to be used in explaining his statements. Seed vessels are really made up of changed leaves, and hence the leaves are now absent in the seed bearing trees.

The male trees proceeded to make leaves at once on the disappearance of the male flowers many weeks ago, (May 30,) and they were at the present time covered with foliage, while the female or seed bearing trees were in such a leafless condition. We know the value of leaves to a tree. Their woody structure is made up from the atmosphere through the medium of the leaves; without leaves they could not live.

If the leaves are artificially removed from trees or plants continuously they will die. Such is the case with even the most noxious weeds. As to the strength of trees, seed producing and non-seed producing, in other words, male and female trees, it is observable that, although the female trees produce large quantities of seeds, they make quite as much wood as the male trees. Those trees which habitually produce seeds have just as large trunks, and are as tall and strong every way, as the male trees, which never bear seeds. As it is necessary to have leaves to form wood, as well as waste in making fruit, it shows that the female trees have a greater power of turning nutrition to practical use, and thus we arrive at the doctrine developed during the past few years, that the female has a greater power of endurance than the male. Besides the doctrine as exhibited in the vegetable, Mr. Meehan believes it extends throughout the entire organic kingdom. And it was one of the most valuable lessons that modern science had been able to give us from a tree.

The next subject spoken of was the formation and growth of seeds, and the laws of their germination. The laws governing the growth of seeds was treated in an exceedingly interesting manner. The tree or plant is made up of cells, and to study the laws or growth it is necessary to study the cell. The cells are identically the same throughout the plant. Some take the form of leaves and of small fibers and die every year, while others form wood and main roots, and have a continuous existence.

Why some cells should be compelled to take the form of leaves or fibers, working continuously, throughout the season, for the benefit of other cells, which, as woody structures, were permitted to live longer, could not be accounted for on any theory of benefit to the individual cells of these leaves or root fibers. They were evidently actuated by some power superior to themselves, and which had induced them to lay down their lives for the rest. It was, in fact, a republic, and leaves had to die in this community, just as in communities where the soldiers die that the nation may live. The laws which compel some cells to die early, and some to have a longer lease of life, were fully explained. The subject of cells is very important, and is necessary in considering the structure of all vegetable life. There is an inward layer of bark made every year upon trees, just the same as there is an outward layer of wood. If a cherry tree be stripped of its bark in June, when the leaves are in their fullest luxuriance, the tree will still flourish, and both new wood and new bark will be formed during the season. At other seasons of the year the process would kill the tree. The new ring of wood, which is added every year, is made by the multiplication of cells between the bark and wood, from the wood of last year.

Having thus shown, by illustration on the black-board, how wood was

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