there should be definite assurance that everything included in the course has specific value in improving the practice of primary teachers, and no important aspect of the work of such teachers should be omitted from the training. The same things are true of the course for upper-grade teachers, but here it is even more difficult to give adequate training in two years; hence several of the more highly developed normal-school systems are gradually making a transition to three-year courses for high-school graduates who expect to teach in the upper grades.

Specific training emphasized by Morrison.-The importance of specific purposes is often overlooked by normal-school authorities, more especially by the departmental instructors; hence it will be given special emphasis here by means of quotations from the discussions of State Supt. Morrison, of New Hampshire, and Commissioner Snedden, of Massachusetts. In an earlier chapter on normalschool control the part played by Supt. Morrison in modifying the work of the New Hampshire normal schools was described (see p. 43). In his report for 1911-12, in discussing the modifications introduced in the course of study, he says (p. 152):

In the last biennial report of this office the theory under which the training process was [formerly] administered was explained. In brief, individual freedom and general development were emphasized, and specific training in methods and school management minimized. This conception of the training process was common to both schools, and a reversal of the process has taken place in the two schools simultaneously. The theory had come to break down in practice. Graduates were found to have acquired considerable general ability as teachers, and after a time, under the oversight and instruction of a superintendent, acquired facility in schoolroom routine. They did not learn how to teach and how to handle a school.

A program has been prescribed by the trustees calculated to give specific and definite training for teaching in the elementary schools of this State. The State course of study is made the basis of instruction in methods, and the same is made the course of study in the model and practice schools. Thus, the students under training are made familiar from the outset with the line of work which they must carry out as teachers. It is further provided that each student before graduation must "make good" by teaching one-half of each school day for 18 weeks in the practice schools, being responsible for the conduct of classrooms for that time.

The principals have faithfully carried out this program.

It is too early to report definitely upon results, since at the time of writing the graduates have taught for less than six weeks. We are, however, informed by the superintendent of schools in Manchester that the seven graduates of the Plymouth class of 1912, now teaching in that city, have shown marked and unusual capacity in the schoolroom. There is nothing peculiar in this case, and no doubt substantially the same report would come from the majority of the graduates of 1912 at both Plymouth and Keene.

It is obvious from this report that vague general purposes and training have been replaced by specific purposes and training in the New Hampshire normal schools.

Need of more specific aims emphasized by Snedden.-One of the best discussions of this general policy and of the general principles that should govern the organization of normal-school courses of study and instruction is found in Commissioner Snedden's elaborate report for 1912-13 on the Massachusetts normal schools, which has been quoted many times in this bulletin. In his conferences with the principals and faculty representatives of the 10 normal schools, the following propositions were made the basis of the discussion so far as it affected the course of study:

1. The purpose of each type of instruction and training offered in the normal schools shall be more effectively defined.

2. Normal-school training should be effectively correlated with the educational practices in town and city schools.

3. Certain of the professional subjects, especially psychology and the history of education, should be more effectively taught, if they are to justify their presence in the curriculum.

4. There is need of a clearer understanding of the needs, limitations, and possibilities of typical normal-school students.

5. The professional training given by the normal schools should be differentiated according to the probable field of service in elementary schools to be entered by the prospective teacher.

Trenton principal emphasizes clear defining of normal-school methods. This necessity of a more careful determination of specific values in normal-school courses of study was frequently referred to in letters to the authors from normal-school authorities. Thus, the principal of the State Normal School at Trenton, N. J., wrote as follows:

I can see how a request sent to normal schools asking them to define the points in which their work differed from the usual academic work-in other words, asking them to define their methods-would be of very great interest. I think the general mind is muddled concerning what is peculiarly normal.

Oshkosh principal emphasizes differentiated departmental courses.Along the line of more careful determination of the specific values of normal-school courses and differentiation accordingly, the principal of the State Normal School at Oshkosh, Wis., wrote as follows:

I consider it quite essential to find out, first, the extent to which the course of study is adapted to the prospective needs of different groups of teachers; that is, the amount of real differentiation there is in it-does everybody have the same geography or is the geography differentiated?-because the extent of this differentiation is a measure of the extent to which serviceable subject matter and most highly serviceable methods are taught.

History of development of differentiated courses in Wisconsin.— The historical development of the point of view which emphasizes specific professional training in the normal-school courses of study, instead of general high-school or collegiate training, is summarized

for the State of Wisconsin in the following quotation from the bulletin published by the board of regents of the normal schools of that State (March, 1915). This number of the bulletin is devoted to the organization of differentiated courses in the normal schools. The historical change from short review courses to general cultural courses, and later to the vocational-professional courses, is described by Secretary Kittle in the following words:

THREE TYPES OF NORMAL SCHOOLS.

1. The early normal schools, from 1866 to 1895, offered what were called reviews or general reviews. They gave 5-week courses, 6-week courses, and 10-week courses in the common branches-arithmetic, geography, history, and grammar. They organized and formulated these into a body of common knowledge.

In this policy, psychology and pedagogy played a most important part. The leading man in these two subjects was called the institute conductor. It was his work to organize the subject matter of the general reviews and to formulate the principles of teaching, and then to extend such work into the county institutes. These reviews and the pedagogy then appeared in the classroom work of the public schools and in the county superintendents' examinations for teachers. Hence the early normal school centered in reviews and pedagogy and psychology on a practical basis.

2. Some time prior to 1900 a new movement began in the normal schools of Wisconsin. An increasing number of teachers, direct or nearly direct, from the colleges and universities began to be employed in the normal schools. Most of these were well qualified to offer broad general courses in their chosen subjects, like the courses in the very best high schools. Many were well qualified and wished to offer intensive courses like those given in a college or a university. These teachers brought scholarship and breadth of view in the normal schools. But they transformed the normal school more and more into a high school with some college work. The colleges and universities in the decade from 1900 to 1910 have served as huge magnets to deflect the normal school from its own special field of service. Under these combined influences the normal school became partly the old-time normal school, partly the modern high school, and partly the college or university.

3. The new type of normal school is emerging. It is based on the principle that the normal school is a vocational school; that it is the best instrument for training kindergarten teachers, primary teachers, and grammar-grade teachers; that it may be used to train certain high-school teachers and special teachers; that its course of study and classroom instruction should be differentiated for special lines of service.

Desire for college credit should not eliminate valuable courses.— One of the factors that interfere with normal-school courses being limited to instruction that is specifically helpful to prospective teachers of certain grades is the desire to secure college or university credit elsewhere for all of the work that a student has taken in the normal school. Since universities may hesitate to give credit for such courses as "handwork for the primary grades," or, "arithmetic for the upper grades," normal-school students who are ambitious for college credits may neglect to take these courses, although they may be important in their future teaching. In Wisconsin, where academic

junior college courses have been organized in the normal schools, this danger is appreciated and is commented upon in the following quotation from the 1914-15 catalogue of the Milwaukee State Normal School:

All the courses in the normal school (with the exception of the college course and certain courses in the school of fine and applied arts) are designed to fit teachers for the schools of Wisconsin. The school is essentially a vocational school. The studies in the normal courses are selected for the value they are believed to have for prospective teachers, rather than for their quality of pleasing students or enabling the students at some future time to obtain credit at college for them. Incidentally, the work done at the normal school may, most, if not all of it, be made to count on a future college course for those students, and it is hoped there may be many who wish to continue their studies; but it is believed that normal students are serious-minded young people who know the purpose of a normal course and are willing to do what will best fit them for the work they propose to undertake.

Departmental courses differentiated for primary grades and upper grades. When one compares the differentiated courses of study for primary teachers and upper-grade teachers, it may be found that they are very much alike in the general statement of the amount of work required in each department, but that the departmental courses are differentiated for the teachers of different grades. The latter differentiation is well illustrated in the catalogue of the Platteville (Wis.) State Normal School for 1914-15. For example, in the English department appears "Juvenile literature required of all who are preparing to teach in the primary grades," and "American literature required of all students who are preparing to teach in the upper grades." Another course is "Geography for lower-grade teachers," and "Geography for upper-grade teachers"; there are also similarly differentiated courses in history, manual arts, mathematics, psychology, and education.

Electives should be restricted to courses specifically preparatory to grade of teaching elected.-If it is true that two years beyond high-school graduation is a short time in which to train a prospective primary teacher well, and three years is probably necessary for training an upper-grade teacher, as postulated earlier in this chapter, the question arises whether any electives should be permitted in such courses. It is quite obvious that the question at issue concerning electives in such highly differentiated and specifically vocational courses as those described above is quite different from the question at issue in the organization of general courses of study in high schools and colleges. Confusion of these two types of situations has often led to the allowing of a considerable range of election in normal-school courses where there is no good reason to justify it. In general, when a student is specifically preparing himself for teaching in certain grades of the elementary schools, and is permitted to elect some of his courses, the following restrictions should

prevail: It should be assured (1) that he is neglecting no phase of the elementary-school course of study for which he needs training; (2) that all of the courses which he elects do give specific training for the grade of teaching that he expects to undertake; (3) that his elections have the approval of a competent faculty adviser who is free from departmental prejudices and bias.

Lack of common units makes statistical statements unreliable.It was originally intended in this chapter to make a strong feature of a statistical table showing the percentages of the time devoted to the various subjects in the general two-year courses for high-school graduates in a large number of normal schools. Upon a careful study of normal-school catalogues, however, it became evident that an extensive and reliable study of this sort would be difficult to make from the available data. In the first place, some normal schools print no tabulated statement of their requirements for graduation. Others print a statement of the number of hours per week, but do not distinguish between laboratory or shop work on the one hand and "prepared" work on the other. In some such cases, if the item "Drawing * 3 hours," appears, it may mean any one of the following: (a) Three hours of studio work with outside preparation; or (b) three hours of studio work with no outside preparation; or (c) three double periods of studio work with outside preparation; or (d) three double periods of studio work with no outside preparation.

* *

In some cases the catalogues state the requirements for graduation in terms of "units" or "credits." In such instances a reader may feel reasonably sure that the recitation and laboratory or shop hours have been reduced to a common basis for credit.

The point under discussion is especially important in connection with the requirements in the fine and industrial arts and in music. The large variation shown in the percentages of such work required in different institutions and printed in the table on page 85 is probably due to the fact that in many of the higher cases the time hours were not reduced to credit hours in preparing the statements published in the catalogues, and in the lower cases they were. Hence, the calculations are probably reliable only in cases where the catalogues give the requirements in terms of units or credits, as at Ypsilanti, Mich., and Terre Haute, Ind.

A suggestive table of time distributions is provided.-After considerable unsuccessful endeavor to secure extensive, reliable calculations in spite of the difficulties mentioned above, it was decided to attempt such calculations in the cases of only a few schools and to submit the results as a sample of what is possible under present conditions. These results are shown in the tables on page 85. The experience in making them suggests the desirability of each State normal school formulating its units of credit and requirements for