and economical. Aside from the psychological argument, it is sufficient justification for the maintenance of manual training that a boy, no matter what his future may be, should acquire a degree of expertness in the use of tools. From about the seventh grade on the powers of the student are such that the emphasis is placed increasingly on this new factor-technical skill. Hardly less than four hours in the seventh and eighth grades and seven and one-half hours in the ninth should be devoted to shopwork each week, which may include time given to mechanical drawing. By means of carefully planned models, the simpler cabinetmaker's and carpenter's cutting and measuring tools àre brought into use. With the possible exception of the saws, each student should learn to sharpen and care for his tools by the time he has reached the ninth grade.

All projects are made from drawings; in some cases a quick freehand sketch, but in most instances several "views" are needed. Instruction in freehand and mechanical drawing should accompany shopwork and the closest of correlation maintained between the subjects. In the ninth grade, from two and onehalf to three and one-half hours per week may be given to drawing, sketching, and lettering receiving emphasis throughout the year. The mechanics of instrumental drawing, together with the principles of projection and working drawings, will furnish a year's hard work.

An ordinary boy leaving school at this time can not but reflect the years of shop discipline and system in increased responsibility, orderliness, and initiative. He will have acquired something of the power of analysis, also the ability to obey exactly, whether the order comes from another or from himself. Technically he can use well any of the tools of the carpenter or cabinetmaker. He can draw a perspective sketch of a proposed table, make a working drawing with instruments, then trace it, and from the blue prints build the table of oak, using, besides hand tools, such machines as the surfacer, circular and band saw, as well as the jointer. After completing the construction of his chosen article, he will scrape and sand it, then fill and varnish it, rubbing down each coat.

If the boy enters one of the mechanical trades, he finds that a sure foundation in training has been laid. If not, he has knowledge of daily application, skill of daily need. In any case his adaptability and his capacity to improve have been immeasurably increased and his value to his fellows correspondingly enhanced.

The third cycle commences with us at the tenth year of school life and ends at the twelfth. The boy is now approaching manhood. Somewhat of his responsibilities is looming up before him, and consciousness of strength is dawning. In greater degree than ever before life standards should measure his work. The standard of workmanship now tends toward that of the commercial world. Two lines of procedure are open to the student. One, a "general" course covering 10 hours per week for three years, has for its objective familiarity with the basic principles underlying a number of trades-carpentry, joinery, patternmaking, turning, blacksmithing, molding, foundry practice, machine-shop practice, and mechanical or architectural drafting. Drawing occupies one-third and tool work two-thirds of the allotted time. While the work here is highly technical, the justification, broadly made, is still educational. The "whole boy" is now at school. Three-sevenths of his school day is spent in the shop and drafting room and four-sevenths in the classroom.

The second line of procedure is the "special" course, covering about the same time as the "general" course, but centering for the major part of the three years upon a specialty in which such proficiency may be gained that either directly, as in mechanical drafting, or, after a very much shortened apprentice

ship in certain lines of tool work, the boy may enter into the practice of his vocation.

A student in this course finds himself, upon his graduation at 18 or 19, as advanced in the technical knowledge of his chosen trade as the apprentice of two or three years standing. He knows, moreover, what the apprentice is not apt to know-the reasons for things and the underlying science as well, for he has had the inestimable advantage of instruction in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, and chemistry, and he has been taught in the shop as no apprentice is ever taught. Further than this, he has studied history and the principles of government. He has had a year of bookkeeping, including business arithmetic, business papers and accounts, and he has had continuous training in writing and speaking the English language.

It is probable that the complex needs of given communities can best be met through a combination of the two plans-through cooperation with industrial concerns, whereby school and vocation shall alternate, and through the plan of bringing experts as instructors in various occupations into the school, whether it be the trade school or the more general polytechnic departments of our high schools. Whatever the plan adopted, however, and whatever course the future development of the school takes in this respect, it is clear that society demands of the school, in addition to transmitting the culture and experience of the race, also the duty of helping the youth of each generation to choose his occupation wisely and well and to secure the requisite special training for success in it.

The breaking of the secondary period into two cycles-the one ending and the other beginning at about the age of apprenticeship to the trades, that is at 15 or 16-obviously facilitates such training irrespective of which of the two general plans for securing occupational instruction is followed. Such an arrangement provides three convenient points for the articulation of the vocational branch lines with the main trunk line of secondary education. The first would come at the end of the sixth, the second at the end of the ninth or tenth grade, and the third preferably at the end of the fourteenth grade-that is, at the end of the second year of the traditional college course. Vocational offshoots from the main line at each of these three joints would provide for the following groups: The first, that at the end of the sixth grade, for the children who now drop out in the upper elementary grades, enter a business school for a few weeks, then drift into occupations requiring no special training; the second, that at the end of the ninth or tenth years, for those who are headed for technical vocations; the third, that at the end of the fourteenth grade, for those who are looking forward to professional careers. By such an arrangement three levels of vocational preparation can be secured, and yet, by properly relating the work given in each to the "core" running continuously throughout the length of the system, no difficulty should be experienced by anyone

who has stepped aside at a given level in getting back on the trunk line whenever it is desired.

The details of the courses to be offered in these vocational offshoots can be determined only upon the most careful investigation of particular occupations by the experts in each. The work, however, comprising the "core" of the main line should be linked up functionally with that of the vocational courses as closely as possible. By so doing not only will the return be made easier, but, what is even more important, means will thereby be provided for vitalizing a considerable body of culture material by relating it to the concrete. In speaking of the elementary technical schools of Munich, an outgrowth of the "continuation schools" of that city, Hall describes the training of a chimney sweep, therein given, to illustrate the wide range of knowledge which can be made of direct utility when the right connections are established.

One feels, he says, that a barber, butcher, baker, cobbler, and the rest, may be an educated gentleman if he masters his craft. The chimney sweep is taught about fireplaces, hearths, stoves, steam, and other systems of heating, brick, stone, and other building material, flues, fluted and complex chimneys, their tops, ventilators, the physics of air currents and the history of house warming from Greece and Rome to our day; he knows all the tools and problems of his trade; the chemistry of soot and ash; does problems in temperature and fuel economics, fireproof construction; studies roofs, mortars, devices for reducing smoke and gas, fire extinguishers, something of house and especially of chimney construction, laws, insurance, police regulations, the use of pitch, plaster, waterspouts, etc.; there is considerable instruction concerning duties, deportment, civics, etc. Surely no boy in the later teens who has mastered such a course can be called uneducated.1

The broad educational possibilities of the so-called "practical" courses is also illustrated in the work of Bertha C. Prentiss, head of the department of home economics in the schools of Berkeley, who, in outlining the courses for girls preparatory to the vocations associated with home making, has emphasized breadth of treatment. She has described it in the following words:

Cookery is especially worth while in the first year of the cycle comprising the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, as girls of this age, 12 or 13, are greatly interested in active work. Sewing will be more beneficial in the two following years, when the girls develop the natural desire to make things for personal use and adornment.

During the first year, then, the work will continue to establish orderly and neat habits in housework processes and to arouse an interest in the care of the house. The simple cookery problems should be continued with emphasis

1 Hall, Educational Problems, vol. 1, p. 588.

upon serving and upon the cost of the materials. Where the work in cookery is carried into the second and third years of this cycle it should be much broader and should include a study of the growth, composition, manufacture, and nutritive values of the common foodstuffs, with methods of cooking and serving. Elementary laundry lessons, home nursing, and the consideration of expenditures in the home should also be included.

Courses in sewing in this cycle should include a review of hand sewing and introduce much machine work. There should be the making of garments, such as underwear and the simpler dresses. Commercial patterns should be used and their value studied. Textile study should be continued and the pupil should gain a knowledge of the relative cost of materials.

In connection with the actual work of sewing there will be opportunity to help in the all-round development of the girl. Good taste and good judgment in regard to suitability and adaptability of the materials used can be developed and a study made of their value. There will also be opportunity to develop an appreciation of the labor connected with sweatshop work and a knowledge of the cost of clothing made under decent conditions. There will thus be developed an industrial intelligence which will lend dignity to labor. The work will also aid in developing the girl in self-reliance and responsibility, especially in respect to the home and to the mother.

Where the work is an elective subject in this cycle, girls often do not realize the value of the work, so they fail to take the courses during this most important period in their life. At least one year each of cooking and sewing should be required of all girls in this cycle.

While in the average school it is not practicable to teach the various branches of this subject from the trade standpoint, a strong foundation can be laid for the vocations which provide a livelihood. It should be possible for pupils from this cycle to enter any one of several occupations as a small wage earner rather than as an apprentice. While the work, then, need not aim at teaching a trade, it can have a large place in aiding pupils in choosing a vocation and in earning a livelihood, if it is necessary for the pupil to go to work at the close of this school period.

In the third cycle of school work courses in home economics should build upon the foundation already laid in the preceding cycles. The study of the scientific side of the work should be introduced; the reasons for the technique should be given; and a study of the economic questions involved should be begun. The work here should emphasize the home as a unit of society, and the management of the home as a business needing intelligence and special training.

Courses in this cycle should include the advanced problems of cooking and sewing, together with a study of nutrition, sanitation, dietetics, and household management. Household furnishings and decoration, plain sewing, dressmaking, and millinery should also be included. Expenditures should always be considered. Textile study should be continued and include the study of materials in regard to cost and economy in purchasing.

A better knowledge of the subjects included under the study of shelter, food, and clothing will prevent the common waste through poor buying and through the extravagant use of materials which is so prevalent to-day because of the lack of special knowledge on the part of the women. Some work in home economics should be required of every girl in any high school, whether it be a classical, manual training, or polytechnic high school.

Besides the completion of the practical problems in any line of home economics work, there is much thought content to be studied. In garment making is found the opportunity of taking up machine sewing and of studying

its value in relation to hand sewing; of using commercial patterns; of studying hygiene in relation to wearing apparel; of gaining an idea of the suitability of apparel in relation to use and to income; of knowing the prices, widths, quality, etc., of materials in relation to use; and of planning the details of the wardrobe.

In the household furnishing and management courses is found the opportunity of considering the home in regard to artistic and beautiful furnishings and their relation to income; of considering the spirit of home making; of discussing its management in relation to the repair of clothing, linen, rugs, and the general care of clothing and of house furnishings and the laundering of materials; and of studying the economy of time in relation to the making and the use of home things.

In connection with the cookery courses is included a study of the effect of heat upon the food principles-protein, fats, and carbohydrates, alone and in combination; experiments with the leavening agents and the effect of these substances on digestion; the preservation of food and the effects of ferments and chemical agents in canning and preserving; the adulteration of foods; the comparative value of homemade and purchased products; the family dietary, with the selection of food to suit different conditions of life; the serving of meals with regard to comfort and economy in both cooking and serving; the cost of food and meals; and an understanding of the essential features of good marketing.

In consequence of these courses in home economics, girls are able to make undergarments, wash dresses, woolen dresses, and simple evening dresses, either for themselves or for another. They know how to buy materials, both in regard to suitability and value. They know how to select and care for household furnishings and how to cook and serve meals, both in respect to food values and to economy of time and labor in their preparation.

The work in home economics will prepare girls for greater efficiency in the occupations connected with the organization of the home by giving them a practical knowledge of foods and the proper methods of cooking, and an appreciation of the practical, economic, and artistic value of the materials of dress and household furnishings, together with an appreciation of the proper relation to be kept between income and expenditure. The work in home economics will, then, have performed its function in each of the three cycles if it has helped to raise each pupil to her highest efficiency, both as an individual and as a member of society.

Except for the courses of general rather than of special vocational character offered by the departments of mechanic arts and home economics, but one other department of the Berkeley schools, the commercial department, has as yet attempted to offer occupational training, in the narrower sense, for students on the first level of vocational training-that is, in the cycle covering the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. One of the lower high schools, that under the direction of Principal James T. Preston, is situated in the midst of a population comprised of those who gain their living for the most part through unskilled labor. In the past, when the children of these families reached the sixth grade they began dropping out rapidly, and by the time the eighth grade was reached but a handful remained. Upon examination Mr. Preston found that many of those