PAINTING AND SCULPTURE. PAINTING.-The earliest account we have of the existence of painting is in the reign of Ninus, about 2000 B.C. Egypt was decidedly the nurse of the arts and sciences, though but few of its paintings remain, and their date is uncertain. The Greeks were very little advanced in the art of painting at the time of the 2 Trojan war. The first important fact in the history of painting is, that about 700 years B. c. a king of Lydia purchased a picture of a Greek artist, and paid him its weight in gold. In the year 400, Zeuxis introduced a new style of painting into Greece, and at this period much 1 progress was made in the art. About the year 328 B. C., Apelles commenced a new era in painting, and many distinguished painters were his contemporaries. 1 The first name worthy of record in the annals of Italian painting is Cimabue, a native of Florence, who painted in 3 fresco, A. D. 1300. In 1445, Leonardo da Vinci was born at Florence. Many subsequent painters are indebted to this great artist for his improvements in the art. During his time the use of oil in painting was discovered. Michael Angelo Buonarotti was born in the year 1474. He erected an academy of painting and sculpture at Florence, and is considered as the founder of the Florentine school. Raphael, born 1483, was the founder of the Roman school. Titian, born 1477, was the founder of the Venetian school. Correggio, born 1494, founded the Lombard school. The establishment of these four schools embraces the golden era of painting. The French, Flemish, Germans, and English, have all produced excellent painters, but none equal to the best masters of Italy. Whoever wishes to see the finest productions of the pencil, must visit Rome. 1. Vide Root. 2. 1200 B.C. 3. With water colours on plaster. SCULPTURE. The antiquity of sculpture is proved by the Bible. In the book of Genesis we read of Laban's images, in Exodus of the golden calf made by Aaron, and of the statues of the cherubim. Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians first carved figures of animals in stone. The sculpture of Egypt was of stupendous magnitude. The pyramids, colossal statues, and *sphynx, are gigantic works of art, and strike those who behold them with astonishment. Hindoo and Chinese sculpture slightly resembles the Egyptian, but is very inferior. Dædalus, who was born 1234 B. c. may be considered the first sculptor in Greece. He formed a school at Athens. The first statues were made of wood; metal was also occasionally used. About 646 B. c. statues in marble were executed, and a school called the Chian school was founded in Greece. After the battle of Marathon, 490 B. C., sculpture flourished, and the schools produced many eminent artists, among whom was Phidias. He executed statues in bronze, marble, and a composition mostly of ivory. His works were numerous and splendid, and he stands without a rival among the ancient masters. From this period till the fall of Greece, many eminent sculptors appeared, but after the death of Alexander, the arts began to decline, and continued in this state for nearly two hundred years, when Greece became a Roman province. Italian sculpture may be divided into two distinct classes, the Etruscan and the Roman. The sculptors were mostly Greeks, as the Romans possessed only sufficient knowledge to value the genius of others. After Constantine, the annals of ancient art may be considered as closed. Sculpture has since risen to great perfection in the schools of Rome and Florence. 4. Sphynx, an Egyptian statue with the head of a virgin and the body of a lion 5. A compound metal of copper and tin. GERMANY. WHEN the hordes of barbarians from the North overran Europe, many remained behind in Germany, and there increased, so that in the time of Charlemagne they were numerous and powerful. But he conquered them, and having made himself master of Germany, became its emperor, and 'resided there. His empire included France, Germany, and other countries. 1 The empire of Germany, thus established, was, however, 1 composed of many separate sovereignties, each of which had its own ruler. In the year 912, it became the custom for these rulers to make choice of one of their number, and declare him emperor. He then presided over the whole of Germany. Thus Germany was what is called an 1elective 1 monarchy, and so it continued, even so late as the year 41815. 1 In 1056, Henry the Fourth was emperor. He had a sharp quarrel with pope Gregory the Seventh. The pope's power was so great, that he compelled the emperor to come to Italy to ask his pardon. In 1273, Rodolph of Hapsburgh, a native of Switzerland, was elected emperor of Germany. He was the ancestor of the present sovereigns of Austria. Most of the German emperors since his reign have been his descendants. 5 Charles the Fifth was the most renowned of the em 1. Vide Root. 2. Ancient Germany extended from the Rhine to the Vistula, and from the Baltic to the Alps 3. They had been previously conquered by Attila, king of the Huns. 4. Germanic Confederation was formed in 1815. Each state has its own laws; nearly all are monarchical. They have a Federal Diet or Congress, at which each state has one or more votes. 5. Charles the Fifth lived contemporary with Henry the Eighth of England, and Francis the First of France 6. Adolphus was killed at the battle of Lutzen. Lutheranism was established by the Diet of Augsburgh, 1555. The name Protestant arose from protesting, in 1529. 7. Each ruler agrees, 1st To defend any other when attacked. 2nd. Not to make a separate peace. 3rd. Not to make war on another. 4th. To refer ali disputes to the diet at Frankfort. perors of Germany. He was likewise king of Spain, and ruler of the Netherlands, and part of Italy. When this great potentate was fifty-seven years old, he grew weary of pomp and power. He therefore took off his crown, and gave it to his son Philip, and went to live in a monastery in Estremadura, in Spain. He dressed very plainly, and busied himself in religious ceremonies and working in a garden. He died in 1588. 1 Ferdinand the Second, who began to reign in 1619, was called by the Catholics the Apostolic emperor, because he was a bitter persecutor of the Protestant inhabitants of Germany. His cruelties forced them to ask the aid of the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus, who accordingly invaded Germany, and gained many victories. The subsequent history of Germany does not abound with remarkable events. 6 In 1792, Francis the Second became emperor of Germany. His empire at the time of his death, which took place in 1836, was one of the most powerful sovereignties of Europe. There is now no German emperor. The separate states and kingdoms are governed by their own sovereigns and their own laws. They send representatives to a sort of 1 congress, called a diet, which manages the general affairs of the German states. GEOGRAPHICAL.-Area, 240,000 square miles. Population, 34 millions. Write the names of the capitals of the following principal German States,-Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Hanover, Saxony. Write the names of the cities and towns on each of the following rivers, the Danube, Rhine, Elbe, Weser, Oder, and Maine. What are the latitude and longitude of the Free Cities, called Hanse Towns, Frankfort on the Maine, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck? CHRONOLOGICAL-Germanicus, the Roman general in Germany, A. D. 11. .... The Emperor of Rome, Marcus Aurelius, invaded Germany 169. 419. .... 447. 568. ...... The Huns, from Tartary, under Attila, conquered Germany .... 1512. HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS. The Diving Bell. To illustrate the principle of this machine, take a glass tumbler, and plunge it into water, with the mouth downwards; and you will find that very little water will rise within the tumbler. This will be very evident if you lay a piece of cork upon the surface of the water, and put the tumbler over it; for you will see that though the cork should be carried far below the surface of the water, yet that its upper side is not wetted, the air which was in the tumbler having 'prevented the entrance of the water. But as air is compressible, it could not entirely 'exclude the water, which by its pressure 'condensed the air a little. 1 The first diving-bell of any note was made by Dr. Halley. It was made in the form of a common bell, the smaller end being closed, and the larger one open. It was so suspended that it might sink full of air with its open base downwards, and, as near as might be, parallel to the horizon, so as to close with the surface of the water. Mr. Smeaton's diving-bell, made in 1788, was a square chest of cast iron, 4 feet in height, 4 feet in length, and 3 feet wide; and afforded room for two men to work in it. It was supplied with fresh air by a forcing pump. Dr. Halley, the great improver of the diving-bell, used to supply his machine with fresh air, by sending down casks, which, by means of cords, were conducted under the bell, and there opened, above the surface of the water. This was found, however, a very inconvenient plan; and the bell at Sheerness is supplied with air by means of a forcing pump and a leather tube. A raft is kept as near to the bell as possible, and on it a small air-pump is worked, which, by means of the leather tube already mentioned, continually renews the air in the bell. |