THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. In order to understand what is meant by the Feudal System, it is necessary to notice the state of society throughout Northern Europe in the middle ages. It was a state of perpetual warfare. War was indeed the chief business of the men. A few of them were engaged in 'agriculture, but a large portion of them led the life of soldiers, either wholly, or at such times as their services were required. A few were devoted to the building of houses, to the manufacture of armour, and such other articles as the simple manners of the people rendered necessary. But even these artisans occasionally bore arms, and went with their countrymen to the field of battle. The chiefs, or leaders, were generally the bravest and strongest men, those who would be most likely in a battle of hard blows to insure victory. When a country was conquered, the lands, towns, cities, gold, silver, merchandise, horses, cattle, and all other property belonging to the conquered people, were considered the spoils of the victors. The people who were defeated were either killed, driven away, or reduced to a state of servitude. War took the place of trade and commerce among them, and the principal inducement to carry it on was to obtain the lands and the goods of other nations. It was, in short, a system of plunder, and the several tribes. might be considered as so many bands of robbers. When a country was conquered, the spoils were distributed among the victors according to their rank. The king, or chief, had a large share, the inferior chiefs had a smaller share, and the common soldiers had still less. The lands were divided in this way, but it was always understood that those who received the land were afterwards bound to go and fight whenever called upon by their chiefs. The lands were not held in those times as they are now among us; each individual did not buy a piece of land, and build upon it, or cultivate it as he liked. But the whole would belong to the king, and portions of it would be given to the inferior chiefs or barons. The king or baron built upon his land an immense strong castle of stone; around it, the people, who were called his vassals, or slaves, built their little huts. These tilled the land, taking what was necessary for their own support, but giving the best to their liege lord. Now what is meant by the Feudal System is this; that the vassals of a baron who lived upon his land were bound to do military service whenever the baron required it, he also being bound to do the same service to the king. } In return for these services, the lord of the manor, or owner of the land, was expected to protect his people in time of war; and as the castle was usually large, the people fled to it whenever an enemy appeared in sight. Here in the castle they would make the best defence in their power. Sometimes they would be besieged for months; but so long as the wines lasted, and the stores of provisions held out, the besieged inmates of the castle would hold revels, tell their stories, and sing their songs. It is not certain when the feudal system commenced, but it appears to have been first in use among the German tribes, and was introduced into France by the Franks, who entered that country 420 B.C. It continued in full force in the time of Charlemagne, and for some centuries formed the basis of all the political systems of Europe. 1. Vide Root. 2. To produce a number of soldiers equivalent to the quantity of land feued. Subsequently Henry 2nd required money to be paid instead of personal service, now called rent. PRUSSIA. 2 PRUSSIA did not become a 'kingdom till the year 1701. Previous to that time it was governed by dukes. Its ancient inhabitants were called Borussi, from whom the country took the name of Prussia. 1 Frederick William the First ascended the throne in 1713. He was a very 1 eccentric man, and prided himself greatly on a regiment of his guards, which consisted of very tall men, many of whom were seven feet high. When this old king was dead, his son Frederic came into possession of an enormous quantity of treasure, as well as an army of sixty thousand men. The war between Prussia and Austria, Russia, and France, began in 1756, and was called the seven years' war. Saxony and Sweden joined the enemies of Frederic. At one time, he seemed on the point of losing all his dominions; but he finally brought the war to an honourable close. He was then the most celebrated sovereign of his time, and is known in history by the title of Frederic the Great. He died in 1786, at the age of seventy-five. He was succeeded by his nephew, Frederic William the Second, who reigned eleven years. The next king was Frederic William the Third. He had a large army, and thought himself powerful enough to withstand the emperor Napoleon. But at the battle of Jena, in 1806, Napoleon wasted the Prussian army, and killed or wounded twenty thousand men. About forty thousand were taken prisoners. Frederic William was then 'deprived of a great part of 1. Vide Root. 2. Prussia was unsubdued till the crusade of 1230, when the German knights of the Teutonic order conquered it. This race ended in Albert, who in 1528 became its first duke, whence the name Ducal Prussia, which lies on the east side of the Vistula, Royal Prussia being on the opposite side of the river. After the battle of Waterloo, and the final defeat of Napoleon, the losses of Prussia were repaired. The capital of Prussia is Berlin, situated on the river Spree. The city is twelve miles in circumference, and is surrounded by a wall. It has a splendid palace, where the king resides, a fine university, where a great many young men are educated, and several places of public amusement. It is, on the whole, one of the most splendid cities in Europe. Besides Berlin, there are many other fine cities in Prussia. Among these are Potsdam, where there is a royal palace, and Dantzic, a wealthy town, and the chief seaport of Prussia. At this place there is a powerful fortress, with immense stone walls and a multitude of cannon. It is defended by a large number of soldiers, who always remain in it. The erection of Prussia into a kingdom presents a singular instance of important events springing from trifling causes. At a conference held at the Hague in 1695, the elector of Prussia, afterwards Frederick William the First, was denied the honour of an armed chair by William the Third, king of Great Britain. This so displeased and mortified him that he determined, against the consent of his ministers, to apply to the Imperial Court; and at length by bribing the Emperor's confessor he obtained the title of king. Thus did the refusal of an armed chair occasion Prussia to become a kingdom. GEOGRAPHICAL.-Area, 105,440 square miles Population fifteen millions Write the names of the towns and cities on the rivers Vistula, Pregel, Memel, and How are the following places situated :-Potsdam, Thorn, (the birthplace of ASTRONOMY. The Solar System and Planets. ASTRONOMY is the science which teaches the magnitudes and motions, distances, periods, and order of the heavenly bodies. 3 The solar system, which the moderns have adopted, was taught by 2Pythagoras, revived by 3 Copernicus, confirmed by 'Galileo and Kepler, and fully established by Sir Isaac Newton. The sun is placed in the centre of this system, from which it never moves; but, from observations made upon its spots, it is found to turn round its own axis from West to East, in about twenty-five days, The planets, called 'primary, revolve round the sun at unequal distances. Their names are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium 'Sidus, and they move in the order in which they are here mentioned. 6 from To this system belong other spherical bodies, which move round their respective primary planets, in the same manner as the primary planets move round the sun, West to East, except those of the Georgium Sidus, which appear to move in a contrary direction. These are called secondary planets, satellites, or moons. The most con spicuous to us is the Moon, which moves round the Earth in something less than twenty-eight days: four revolve round Jupiter, seven round Saturn, and six round the Georgium Sidus. The planets are retained in their 'orbits by the united operation of the 'centripetal force, by which a body is 1. Vide Root. 2. Pythagoras, a Greek, who lived 550 B. C. 3. Copernicus, a native of Thorn, in Polish Prussia, în 1473. 4. Galileo, of Florence, in 1564. He invented the pendulum, formed the telescope and applied it to astronomy, and discovered the rotation of the sun on its axis. 5. Kepler, a native of Wirtemberg, born in 1571. His great discovery was, that the sun passes equal areas of the earth's orbit in equal times. 6. Georgium Sidus, or George's star, so named by Herschel, in honour of George the Third. It is now called Herschel, |