attracted to the centre of gravity, and the 'centrifugal force, by which it tends to persevere in a straight line. These two powers, mutually balancing each other, retain the planets in their orbits. The mean distance of the moon from the earth is about thirty of the earth's diameters, or 240,000 miles. The surface of the moon is to that of the earth as 1 to 13}, and their respective quantities of matter nearly as 1 to 39. The sun is about a million of times larger than the earth. The planets, both primary and secondary, are opaque bodies, and receive all their light from the sun, and make their revolutions round it. From the appearance of the bounds of light and shadow upon their surface, r they are concluded to be spherical, which is confirmed by its being brofound that many of them turn periodically on their axes. The planet Jupiter is surrounded by thin substances, called belts, in which there appear so many changes, that they are generally thought to be clouds, for some of them have appeared broken, and then have become entirely invisible. Saturn is surrounded by a thin broad ring, which appears double through a good telescope. Each of the primary planets moves round the sun in an elliptical orbit. The point of the line in which the planet approaches nearest the sun, is called the 'perihelion ; the point at which it is most remote, is called the 'aphelion. 7. An ellipse is a section of a cone, made by cutting the cone through obliquely. It is sometimes called, though improperly, an elongated circle. AUSTRIA. AUSTRIA formerly belonged to Germany, and is still considered as belonging to it. But of late years other countries have been added which do not belong to Germany. It now includes Hungary, Bohemia, a part of Poland, a part of Italy, and many other states which were formerly independent. In the German part of Austria, which is the eastern portion, the inhabitants speak the German language, and have the manners and customs of Germany. In early times this portion was occupied by tribes of barbarians. At a later period it formed one of the states of the German empire. At this time it was called an 'archduchy, and was governed by an 'archduke, who was, however, 'subject to the emperor. Rodolph of Hapsburgh succeeded to the government of the empire in 1273, and from him the sovereigns of Austria have since descended. After his time, Austria rapidly increased in power, and its archduke was at length considered as of course the emperor of all Germany. It has since been engaged in many wars, particularly with Sweden, Turkey, and France. In 1683, the Turks pushed their arms into the heart of the empire, and laid siege to Vienna, but were finally driven back. In 1809, Austria was 'involved in a war with Bonaparte. She had well-trained soldiers and able generals, but the French emperor beat them in several pitched battles, and finally entered Vienna. Here he made peace with the emperor, but took from him a large portion of his dominions. 1. Vide Root. 2. Austria or Oost-ryck,-east country. Henry I. Emperor of Germany, in 928, formed this country into a separate state, that it might be a protection against the barbarous wandering tribes on that side. 3. The last Archduke, Geysa, on being converted to Christianity in 1000, resigned his power to his son Stephen, who assumed the title of King of Hungary. These, however, were afterwards restored; and at the present day, Austria may be considered as one of the leading kingdoms of Europe. Hungary is an extensive country, and includes several provinces. Buda, the capital, is a fine city, situated upon the Danube. The climate is pleasant, and the soil yields very fine grapes, of which some choice wines are made. The mountains afford considerable quantities of gold and silver. Hungary has been called "Europe in miniature;" it contains communities of twelve distinct people or nations. Public business is often transacted in Latin. 1 The original inhabitants of Hungary consisted of several fierce tribes, who appear to have come from Asia into Europe at a very early date, by crossing the Altai Mountains. They probably resembled those Tartar tribes called Turks, who fell upon the Saracen empire, and established the empire of Turkey. For many years, Hungary was the scene of wars. Its rulers did not acquire the title of 'king till the time of Stephen, who died in 1038. In 1563, Hungary became attached to the Austrian empire, and continues so to the present day. It is rich in Bohemia is a country surrounded by mountains, containing about four millions of inhabitants. mines of silver, tin, and precious stones. present inhabitants are Jews. There are many Gypsies. Many of the also a great This country derives its name from a tribe of Celts from Asia, who settled there about 600 years B. C. In 1526, it was attached to the house of Austria, and has continued so from that time. GEOGRAPHICAL.-Area 300,000 square miles. Population thirty-five millious. What rivers are found in the Austrian dominions? What are its principal mountains? What places are on the rivers Inn, Drave, Theiss, and Save? What are the latitude and longitude of Vienna, Prague, Presburg, Trieste, and Buda? ASTRONOMY. The Stars. FAR beyond the utmost bounds of the solar system, are placed the fixed stars, but so remote that the best telescopes represent them only as points which they cannot magnify. They are called fixed, because they have never been observed to change their position. 1 The unassisted eye can discover no more than about six hundred of these luminaries, but by the aid of telescopes more become visible, and the greater the magnifying power, the more can be seen; so that an infinite number may exist beyond the reach of all human discovery. They are divided into several classes or orders, on account of their apparent difference of size. Those which appear largest, are called stars of the first maguitude; the next to them in lustre, stars of the second magnitude; and so on to the sixth, which are the smallest visible to the naked eye. The stars which cannot be seen without the assistance of telescopes, are called telescopic stars. 1 The first stars are distinguished by different constellations, or collections of stars. The chief of these are the signs of the 'zodiac. In the constellation Aries, sixtyseven stars have been observed, and in the constellation Taurus, one hundred and forty-three. The zodiac is supposed to encircle the heavens: it is about sixteen degrees broad, so that it takes in the orbits of all the planets, and the orbit of the moon. The other constellations are fifty-seven in number; twenty-nine on the north, and twenty-eight on the south side of the zodiac. These fixed stars are all supposed to be suns, as they shine with their own native light. Thus every star may be considered as the centre of a system consisting of planets regulated by laws, and revolving with rapid, continual, and regular motion, like the 1 planets of our solar system. The immense distance of the fixed stars from our earth and from one another fills us with astonishment. The star nearest to us, and consequently the largest in appearance, is the dog star, or Sirius, and is supposed to be 400,000 times the distance from the sun which our earth is, which is 400,000 times 95 millions, or 38 millions of millions of miles. So that a cannon ball would take nearly nine millions of years before it reached one of them. The twinkling of the stars arises from their being so apparently small, that the 'interposition of the least body, of which there are certainly many floating in the air, deprives us of the sight of them. When the interposed body changes its place we again see the star, and this succession being perpetual occasions the twinkling. The planets may be distinguished from the stars by their steady light. The stars are very useful to mariners; one particularly is immediately over the north pole, and is called the north polar star. This is readily found by drawing an imaginary line through the two pointers, which are the most western stars of the constellation called the Great Bear, sometimes called Charles's Wain, from its fancied resemblance to a wagon and horses. 1. Vide Root. ecorded in them ရာ Aries 8 Taurus 2. The twelve signs of the zodiac, and the numbers of stars Ω Leo 101 Aquarius 119 HP Virgo 117 *Pisces 115 Cancer |