the most ancient alphabets, we may ob serve, First, That in a perfect alphabet every letter should represent only one definite sound, and every known sound in the given language should have a corresponding letter. Now we have no instance of a perfect alphabet among modern languages, and have therefore no reason to suppose that the first alphabet was perfect. But even admitting that some of the ancient alphabets which have been transmitted to us were perfect, yet it must be observed, Secondly, That no known alphabet, however ancient, is in the state of its original invention. Cadmus, who was born in the east, carried with him into Greece sixteen letters only; the least copious alphabet we are acquainted with has twenty-two. It is not probable that Cadmus introduced fewer than he possessed; it is more probable that he invented new ones to express sounds which he found among the aborigines. It has generally been supposed of late, that alphabetical writing was formed from hieroglyphics; but we have met with no one, except De Guignes, who has stated the steps of the transition in a satisfactory manner. "Perhaps," says this writer, "we have done too much honour to the inventor of letters, whoever he were, in supposing that he dissected the voice into two parts, and invented marks of two kinds, some to represent consonants, and others vowels." The following is, with some variations, the hypothesis of this writer. Hierogly. phics, with their exactness of delineation, lost their original significancy. This must first be the case with words of most frequent recurrence, and which entered most into combinations with other words; become simple denotements of sound, they were employed to express their respective sounds in combinations of other monosyllabic words, which, in like manner, had lost their original significancy. Hence, by degrees, they became representative of the component parts of all words into which their respective sounds entered. They were always words, but very simple, consisting only of a consonant and a vowel. Variation in the pronunciation of the vowel would occur in different dialects, and hence these marks would be regarded as consonants capable of being differently modified by simple vocal sounds. Letters, at first monosyllabic words, then became marks for the component parts of dissyl labic or polysyllabic words; and then for the unchangeable part of those syllables, that is, for consonants. In the most ancient state of the oriental languages, vowel sounds had no distinct marks. In the latter, marks were joined to the consonants to express the different sounds with which the radical consonant was invested. Among the western nations, a different procedure was adopted. In some cases they used the mark which they had received from the oriental nations for an aspirate and vowel, for the vowel itself; and having once commenced the use of distinct marks for vowels, the procedure was continued, and new marks adopted to express noticed variations of vocal sounds. In support of this statement, may be adduced the following observations: 1. We have seen that hieroglyphics did become significant of sounds; and (see LANGUAGE) that words, originally significant of one class of ideas, being applied to a second, lost their connection with the former, and became directly significant of the latter. 2. We have reason to believe that words were originally monosyllabic in those nations where alphabetical writing was invented, and that the combination of old sounds, or the use of them, uncompounded to express new ideas, was the mode employed to extend the capabilities of their language. Hence the same word would frequently occur in combination, and though its different significations must originally have been represented by dif ferent hieroglyphics, yet, as these lost their significancy, they would easily become as extensive in their meaning as the sounds themselves. And it is obvious that the most simple of those hierogly phics which were used for the same sound, would be employed to represent the sound. 3. It has been shown to be highly pro bable, that originally every consonant had its vowel sound. Hence all syllables might be represented by two, or at most three, European letters. This circumstance would materially diminish the varieties of syllabic sounds. 4. The probability of the theory advanced depends greatly upon the hypothesis, that originally letters were syllabic. The following facts appear to prove this: The ancient oriental alphabets had no denotements for vowels, and even if this be disputed, it must be admitted that they had many words into which none of the supposed vowel marks entered. The Ethiopian alphabet is entirely syllabic. The simple letters denote a consonant and a short a, and marks were added to them to denote other vowels where used. What is doubly singular, they have in many cases added marks to these syllabic characters, to denote they have no vowel belonging to them. In the Coptic and Arabic there are syllabic characters. The alphabets of the eastern Asiatics are principally syllabic, some with ŏ, others with ǎ, joined to a consonant. These circumstances render probable the account here given of the transition from hieroglyphics to letters. The following observations more completely ascertain its high probability. 5. The letters of some of the ancient alphabets have so great a resemblance to the hieroglyphical characters; indeed are such exact transcripts of them, that a simple inspection is sufficient to convince us that hieroglyphics were the origin of letters. This, however, proves little as to the invention of alphabetical writing, except that it was subsequent to the use of hieroglyphics. But, 6. These characters, in many instances, retained their original significancy, which proves them to have been, as De Guignes supposes, denotements for words. We must not expect to find this significancy in all words of which they form component parts; but in such only in whose visible representation the original hierogly. phic formed a component part. Now we must observe, first, that the names of several of the oriental letters are still by themselves significant, and that some of these letters are similar to the Chinese clefs, which have the same signification. Thus the yod signifies the hand. Its form, in some alphabets, resembles the Chinese character for hand. The daleth of the Hebrews, Phenicians, and Ethiopians, signifies a gate, and the action of opening. The hieroglyphic which among the ancient Chinese represented a gate, is exactly similar to this letter. The phi of the Hebrews and af of the Ethiopians signify the mouth. The Chinese characters for the mouth all resemble it. The y ain signifies the eye. The Phenicians and the Chinese employed the outline of the eye as a denotement of the object. The shin in Hebrews signifies the teeth, and its figure is still found among the Chinese with the same signification. The mim signifies water. The corresponding Samaritan and Ethiopian characters have a strong resemblance to the Chinese hieroglyphic for water. Lastly, the saleph (originally perhaps signifying ox) signifies unity, the action of conducting, pre-eminence. The Phenician form of this exactly represents the Chinese character for one, and every action by which we are at the head of others. But these letters are not only significant by themselves, but secondly in combinations. Thus, was expressed by the monosyllable ya, ye, or you; to this another monosyllable, which had equally a signification relative to the figure, being added, formed a word of two syllables. For instance, instead of the present denomination of daleth, we may reasonably suppose its original sound to have been da. The word yada, hieroglyphically represented by a gate and a hand, is found in the Hebrew with a signification derived from that of the letters composing it; to cast out (as we might say, hand him to the door), to extend. Add to this the word y ain (originally probably sounded ho), which signifies the eye, and we have yadaho, which should signify to open the eyes, to extend the view, &c. and metaphorically, to know, to understand; and, in fact, this is the signification of y in Hebrew. But this is not all, for exactly the same procedure has been adopted by the Chinese. Ki, which signifies to examine, is composed of three radical characters, of which the first signifies the hand, the second a gate, the third the eye. So also kia is composed of three characters, one signifying the teeth, the other two, gate or opening, which signifies to break through, to make a great opening. In Hebrew is similarly composed. It signifies to plunder, to lay waste. Tchi is a large collection of water. composed of the characters for hand and water. The same compound was formed among the Hebrews, and ▷ yam, signifies a great collection of water, or the sea. In Arabic the letters thet or earth, and mim or water, from the word tham, and signify a flood. The Hebrew thin is composed of the thet or earth, and the nun, which signi fies man, i. e. man of the earth, and further, to form, to create. In both these instances, the Chinese correspond in their combinations with the alphabetical writing. Many other instances might be brought. We will adduce one to which there is no corresponding combination in the Chi nese language. Ab, or Haba, 2, signifies father. The component parts of it signify principal of the house. It was The papers of De Guignes, to which we are very greatly indebted on this sub ject, are to be found in Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres, vol. 34, &c. WRONG stamp. By 37 George III. c. 136. any instrument (except bills of exchange, promissory notes, or other notes, drafts, or orders) liable to stamp-duty, whereon shall be impressed any stamp of a different denomination, but of an equal or greater value than the stamp required, may be stamped with the proper stamp after the execution, on payment of duty and five pounds penalty, but without any allowance for the wrong stamp. Likewise any such instrument (except as aforesaid) being ingrossed without having been first stamped, or having a stamp thereon of less value than required, the same may be stamped after the execution, on payment of the duty and ten pounds penalty only, for each skin thereof: but in case it shall be satisfactorily proved to the Commissioners of stamps, that the same hath been so ingrossed either by accident or inadvertency, or from urgent necessity, or unavoidable circumstances, and without any intention of fraud, the Commissioners are authorized to stamp the same within sixty days after the execution, to remit the penalty in part, or in all, and to indemnify persons so ingrossing the same. WULFENIA, in botany, so named from the Rev. Francis Xavier Wulfen, a genus of the Diandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: corolla tubular, ringent, with the upper lip short, entire, the lower three-parted, with the aperture bearded; calyx five-parted; capsule two-celled, four-valved. There is only one species, viz. W. carinthiaca, a native of Carinthia, on the highest Alps. honour of Frederick Baron Van Wurmb, WURMBEA, in botany, so named in a genus of the Hexandria Trigynia class and order. Natural order of Coronariæ. Junci, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx none; corolla six-parted, with a hexangular tube; filaments inserted into the throat. There are three species. WYTE, or WITE, in our ancient customs, a pecuniary penalty or mulct. The Saxons had two kinds of punishments, were and wyte; the first for the more grievous offences. The wyte was for the less heinous ones. It was not fixed to any certain sum, but left at liberty to be varied according to the nature of the case. Hence also wyte, or wittree, one of the terms of privilege granted to our sportsmen, signifying a freedom or immunity from fines or amerciaments. X. or x, is the twenty-second letter of our alphabet, and a double consonant. It was not used by the Hebrews or ancient Greeks; for as it is a compound letter, the ancients, who used great simplicity in their writings, made use of, and expressed this letter by its component letters cs. Neither have the Italians this letter, but express it by ss. X begins no word in our language but such as are of Greek original, and is in few others but what are of Latin derivation, as perplex, reflexion, defluxion, &c. We often express this sound by single letters, as cks in backs, necks; by ks in books, breaks; by cc in access, accident; by ct in action, unction, &c. In numerals it expresses 10, whence in old Rom.n manuscrips it is used for denarius; and as such seems to be made of two V's placed one over the other. When a dash is added over it, thus X, it signifies ten thousand. XANTHE, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Syngenesia class and order. Essential character: flowers dioecious; calyx five, six-parted, permanent; corolla five, six-petalled; males with one filament, bearing five anthers, collected into a shield-shaped head; females with five barren anthers; capsule globose, crowned with the stigma, five-striated, five-valved; seeds very many, involved in the pulp. There are two species, viz. X. quapoya, and X. panari. XANTHIUM, in botany, a genus of the Monoecia Pentandria class and order. Natural order of Composite Nucamentaceæ. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Essential charac ter: male, calyx common, imbricate; corolla one petalled; five-cleft, funnel-form; receptacle chaffy; female, calyx involucre, two-leaved, two-flowered; corolla none; drupe dry, muricated, two cleft; nucleus two-celled. There are five species. XANTHORHIZA, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Polygynia class and order. Natural order of Ranunculaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx none; petals five; nectary five, pedicelled; capsule five, one-seeded. There is only one species, viz. X. apiitolia, a native of North America. XANTHOXYLUM, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Pentandria class and order. Natural order of Hederacex. Terebintacea, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx five-parted; corolla none; female, pistil five; capsule five, one-seeded. There is but one species, viz, X. clava herculis, tooth-ache tree; it grows naturally in Pennsylvania and Maryland. XERANTHEMUM, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class and order. Natural order of Compositæ Discoideæ. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx imbricate, rayed, with the ray coloured; down bristleshaped; receptacle chaffy. There are twenty-seven species. XIMENIA, in botany, so named in honour of the Rev. Father Francis Ximenes, a Spaniard, a genus of the Octandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Aurantia, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx four-cleft; petals four, hairy, rolled back; drupe one-seeded. There are three species. XIPHIAS, the sword-fish, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order Apodes. Generic character: head with the upper jaw ending in a sword-shaped snout; mouth without teeth; gill-membrane eight-rayed; body roundish, without scales. There are three species; X. gladeus, or the common sword-fish, is of the length of twenty feet, and is particularly distinguished by its upper jaw being stretched to a considerable distance beyond the lower, flat above and beneath, but edges at the sides, and of a bony substance, covered by a strong epidermis. It is a fish extremely rapacious, and finds in the above instrument a weapon of atattack and destruction able to procure it the most ample supplies. It first transfixes its prey with this snout, and then devours it. It is found in the Mediterranean, chiefly about Sicily, and is used as food by the Sicilians, who preserve it for a long time by salting it in small pieces. See Pisces, Plate VI. fig. 5. X. platypterus, or the broad-finned sword-fish, is found in the Northern, Atlantic, and Indian Seas, and is considered as one of the most fatal enemies of the whale tribe. Its strength is so great, that it is said to have pervaded with its snout, or sword, the plank of an East Indiaman and a plank and snout in attestation of this circumstance, the latter closely driven into the former, are to be seen in the British Museum, having been communi. cated to Sir Joseph Banks by an East India Captain, of honour and veracity. When young this fish is used for food, but not after it exceeds four or five feet in length. XIPHIDIUM, in botany, a genus of the Triandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Ensatæ. Irides, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla six-petalled, equal; capsule superior, three-celled, many-seeded. There are two species, viz. X. album and X, cæruleum. XYLOCARPUS, in botany, a genus of the Octandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: calyx four-toothed; corolla four-petalled; nectary eight-cleft; filaments inserted into the nectary: drupe juiceless, large, four or five-grooved; nuts eight or ten, difform. There is but one species, viz. X. granatum, a native of the East Indies. XYLOMELUM, in botany, a genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Proteæ, Jussieu. Essential character: ament with a simple scale; petals four, staminiferous; stigma club-shaped. obtuse. This is one of twenty new genera from the South Seas : the characters of which are given by Dr. Smith. XYLON. See GossYPIUM. XYLOPHYLLA, in botany, sea-side lau rel, a genus of the Pentandria Trigynia class and order. Natural order of Tricoccæ. Euphorbiæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx five-parted, coloured; corolla none; stigmas jagged; capsule three-celled; seeds two. There are se ven species. XYLOPIA, in botany, bitter-wood, a ge nus of the Polyandria Polygynia class and order. Natural order of Coadunatæ. Anonæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx three-leaved; petals six; capsule one or two-seeded, four-cornered, twovalved; seeds arilled. There are three species. XYLOSMA, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Polyandria class and order. Essential character: calyx four or five-parted; corolla none, but a small annular crenulate nectary surrounding the sta mens: male, stamens twenty to fifty; female, style scarcely any; stigma trifid; berry dry, subbilocular; seeds two, threesided. There are two species, viz. X. suaveolens and X. orbiculatum. XYRIS, in botany, a genus of the Tri andria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Ensatæ. Junci, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla three-petalled, equal, crenate; glumes, two-valved in a head; capsule superior. There are four species. Y. Y, alphabet: formed by ex Or y, the twenty-third letter of our pressing the breath with a sudden expan sion of the lips from that configuration by by which we express the vowel u. It is a consonant in the beginning of words, and placed before all vowels, as in yard, yield, young, &c. but before no consonant. At the end of words it is a vowel, and is substituted for the sound of i, as in try, descry, &c. In the middle of words it is not used so frequently as i is, unless in words derived from the Greek, as in chyle, empyreal, &c. though it is admitted into the middle of some pure English words, as in dying, flying, &c. Y is also a numeral, signifying 150, or, according to Baronius, 159; and with a dash a-top, as Y, it signified 150,000. YACHT, or YATCH, a vessel with one deck, carrying from four to twelve guns. YARD, a measure of length used in England and Spain, chiefly to measure cloth, stuffs, &c. See MEASURE. YARD land is taken to signify a certain quantity of land, in some counties being fifteen acres, and in others twenty; in some twenty-four, and in others thirty and forty acres. YARDS of a ship, are those long pieces of timber which are made a little tapering at each end, and are fitted each athwart its proper mast, with the sails made fast to them, so as to be hoisted up, or lowered down, as occasion serves. They have their names from the masts to which they belong. There are several sea terms relating to the management of the yards; as, square the yards; that is, see that they hang right across the ship, and no yard-arm traversed more than another: top the yards; that is, make them stand even. To top the main and fore yards, the clewlines are the most proper; but when the top-sails are stowed, then the top-sailsheets will top them. YARD arm is that half of the yard that is on either side of the mast, when it lies athwart the ship. YARDS also denotes places belonging to the navy, where the ships of war, &c. are laid up in harbour. There are, belonging to his Majesty's navy, six great yards, viz. Chatham, Deptford, Woolwich, Portsmouth, Sheerness, and Plymouth; these yards are fitted with several docks, wharfs, launches, and graving places, for the building, repairing, and cleaning of his Majesty's ships; and therein are lodged great quantities of timber, masts, planks, anchors, and other materials: there are also convenient store-houses in each yard, in which are laid up vast quantities of cables, rigging, sails, blocks, and all other sorts of stores, needful for the royal navy. YARE, among sailors, implies ready or quick; as, be yare at the helm; that is, be quick, ready, and expeditious at the helm. It is sometimes also used for bright by seamen: as, to keep his arms yare; that is, to keep them clean and bright. YARN, wool or flax spun into thread, of which they weave cloth. YEAR, the time that the sun takes to go through the twelve signs of the zodi. ac. See CHRONOLOGY. YEAR and DAY, is a time that determines a right in many cases; and in some works an usurpation, and in others a prescription; as in case of an estray, if the owner, proclamation being made, challenge it not within the time, it is forfeited. So is the year and day, given in case of appeal; in case of descent after entry or claim; if no claim upon a fine or writ of right at the common law; so if a villain remaining in ancient demesne; of a man |