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joist to joist, so they will give strength to the cement, and then boxing up underneath and pouring in sufficient cement to fill the space. When the cement is set it has a firm grip on joists and wire. Then by screwing thin strips of wood on the tops of the joists the floor can be easily and securely fastened. Of course it is necessary to fill the space with cement flush with the tops of the strips in order that the floor may rest evenly and closely against the cement. This will effectively deaden the floors and render them thoroughly sanitary from the underside.

Where wooden joists are used the floors may be deadened with fair success and a complete double floor rendered unnecessary by the method illustrated in Figure 4.

This treatment reduces the risk from fire, but is more expensive than double floors with deadening materials and adds materially to the weight of the building. Doubtless many other ways can be de

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FIG. 4.-Floor with wooden joists and a thin layer of cement.

vised to deaden the floors more satisfactory to local demands than any here mentioned.

In buildings of fireproof construction a single floor is sufficient, for the materials used in fireproofing both deaden the floors and protect them from the cold air from below.

There is a growing tendency because of the increasing cost of wooden floors to substitute cement floors. But generally speaking, it is the writer's opinion that those who are specifying these and accepting them do not realize that cement, even though of the best grade, will not last so long as a well-cared-for hardwood floor properly set.

The proper method of caring for wooden floors is of comparative recent date, and we can look forward to longer usefulness in modern buildings for wooden floors than in the older buildings. If floors are scrubbed and soaked week after week with dirty water, we, of course, may expect rapid destruction of them; but if carefully waxed and oiled and cleaned with care we can expect longer wear from them than we can from any cement at present available.

If he who reads this statement is still in doubt, let him study stairway treads where slate, cement, and wooden steps have been used, and then compare those that have been properly cared for. He will be surprised at the lasting qualities of good wood.

But even if it should happed that cement floors will last longer, they are never so satisfactory nor so easily kept clean as wooden floors. Constant walking over them will loosen the particles of sand and cement and these will be swept out day by day.

On the whole, it is a mistake at present to put cement floors in classrooms, but halls, lavatories, and basement rooms, especially the latter, may be better off with cement.

The so-called dustless oil floor dressing has, when used with skill and judgment, proved of great service in protecting floors and preventing the dust and dirt from rising into the air. It is best to put it on sparingly, however, to prevent any possible odors, and more especially to prevent it from soiling clothing. A great deal of complaint is frequently heard on account of this, and not infrequently such complaint is justifiable, for there is no need to keep the floors saturated with oil to get the best effect. This trouble sometimes results from the use of an oil too thick and heavy, but usually from using it too often or applying too much at one time. When a thin coating of light oil is put on with a brush or better with a spray, made for this purpose, and all pellets of dust and dirt collected by this oil are removed from the floors daily, there ought to be little or no complaint from those teachers who value the cleanliness and healthfulness of the schoolroom more than their own convenience or personal preference.

In high schools where pupils are more careful to keep their shoes clean, and especially in those buildings where good hardwood floors are laid, it is best to wax the floors and keep them well polished. This method, of course, does not prevent so much dust from rising, and it requires more service to keep the floors in good condition; but with the use of dampened sawdust to gather up the dust when sweeping, and with due care, a waxed floor is most satisfactory.

There are several kinds of dustless oils on the market, and also many varieties of floor wax.1 No general recommendation is needed, and indeed none could be made which would be found reliable under all conditions, for the different woods used for floors will need different treatment.

The floors of toilet rooms should be made of some impervious. material, preferably tiles or terrazzo. This will enable them to be

1 Clay recommends a wax polish for hardwood floors made in the following way:

Yellow wax

Yellow ozocerite

Linseed oil (boiled)

Raw sienna

Turpentine

Mix the two waxes over a slow fire, add the oil, and when cold add the turpentine. Modern School Buildings, by Felix Clay. London, B. T. Batsford, 1906, p. 286.)

Parts.

20

20

1

5

25

(See

washed out frequently or mopped up without much trouble. We have found that the only way to keep toilet floors neat and tidy and free from the odors due to infiltration is to make them right to start on and then keep them clean and sanitary under all conditions. A school superintendent who will permit school toilets to become indecent and insanitary, and at the same time make a show of æsthetics elsewhere, is deluding himself into thinking that partially hidden ugliness will be overlooked by the children.

Some insurance companies have objected to the use of floor oils, on the ground that buildings so treated have a greater fire hazard, and they have brought pressure to bear on many boards of education to prevent their use. This restriction is mere theory and reliable statistics are not available to prove it. On the contrary, it seems to the writer that there is about as much evidence for the use of oil as against it to prevent fire. In the first place, without some such treatment floors soon splinter, open cracks get abnormally dry, and wear through much more quickly. Besides fires do not start on schoolroom floors except where defective stoves are used and the floor left unguarded. If a fire gets such headway from a basement or furnace room as to come into classrooms or halls, then the building is probably doomed anyway. Some experimentation, though it was inconclusive, has caused the writer to feel that dry floors are more inflammable than those properly oiled.

The floors of halls in high-school buildings are subject to more wear than are those of the classrooms, and therefore require more care and deserve more consideration in their construction. There is a growing tendency to make the floors of halls of light-colored tiles set in a strong base of cement, or to embed in cement broken bits of marble of various colors and then to polish them to an even surface. Some modern buildings in this country have used plain cement. There are many things to be said in favor of tile floors. In the first place they can be made durable, they are readily cleaned, nonabsorbent, and render the hall lighter and more cheery than wood or any darker material. Tiles, however, are cold, but since halls are to be used chiefly for those who are passing to their rooms or from room to room, there can be little fault found on this account. Perhaps the most serious objections which can be offered to their use are that they are expensive and noisy. Good oak floors properly cared for will last a long time, and they are very effective when kept clean and well polished. But they require a great deal of attention, and in the end are perhaps more expensive than tile floors. If hard pine or maple is used, the precautions mentioned under the section on "Floors" ought to be kept in mind.

2. STAIRWAYS.

The stairways should be of fireproof construction, especially in a wooden building. The prevailing custom is to make wooden stairs in wooden buildings, and more resistant stairs in stone, brick, or cement buildings. A moment's thought is sufficient to show that in this regard wooden buildings need greater care in the construction of stairs than buildings of more resistant materials.

It is in no sense unreasonable to insist on fireproof stairs in all large two-story buildings, especially now that the material is within reach of all. Steel frames incased in cement, and with treads made of the same material render stairways reasonably safe against fires and also insure much greater permanency. The width of a stairway will of course depend in part on the number of students it is designed to accommodate; but in all cases it should be wide enough for two adults to ascend or descend abreast without crowding. In large schools there should be room for three adults on the same tread at once. In general, 5 to 6 feet in width will give plenty of room. The height of the riser should not exceed 6 inches, and the width of the tread be not less than 10 inches in the clear; 12 inches is better. There should be a rectangular landing approximately half way up, and this should be in width nearly double the length of the tread. Such a width will help to prevent blockades in case of fire and will insure better light on the stairs. It may be said here in passing that the habit of decorating this landing with potted plants, box seats, etc., needs questioning. If plants can be placed safely out of the way, there can be no objection offered. Some day we may have enough faith in the value of art and enough artists in our country to decorate the walls above these landings as well as in the hallways with mural paintings of a worthy sort, and then they will not seem so bare and cheerless.

Much has been written on the question of whether or not stairways should be boxed in or finished with open work, surmounted with a handrail. Those favoring the former method have cited instances where children have fallen over and received serious injuries where open balustrades have been used. But the danger from this sort of construction seems very slight, indeed, where due care is taken to make these high enough and sufficiently strong. The most objectionable feature of the open balustrade along stairways is the fact that in mixed schools they do not sufficiently shield the girls, as they ascend, from exposure to the view of those on the lower half of the stairs. At the high-school age, girls still wear short skirts, and in mixed schools, stairways thus constructed furnish opportunities which may be very objectionable. On the other hand, the boxed-in stairway is much darker and sometimes less acceptable from the

standpoint of appearance. It therefore seems wise in building for mixed schools to recommend a balustrade with the lower part solid and the upper part more open.

Our best school architects are consistently specifying solid balustrades and also placing two or three metal ornaments of simple design on the rails to prevent pupils from attempting to slide down them, and there can be little serious objection to them.

When stair treads are made of cement, the corners next the risers ought to be left rounded instead of square, in order to facilitate keeping them clean. Dirt caught in rectangular corners is hard to remove and by reason of this fact is often left undisturbed. Where wooden stairs are used a triangular piece of tin made to fit the corners closely, saves much work in sweeping and gives better results in cleanliness. It is a wise procedure, in the construction of fireproof stairways, to use the very best cement obtainable, so that the treads may resist wear, stand level or nearly so, and especially to render the exposed edges strong and nonslippery. Handrails are needed on the wall side as well as along the outer side. These, however, should not extend more than 3 or 4 inches from the wall, and should be at least 3 feet above the treads. They are often too low to offer satisfactory assistance in going down the stairs, and there is far more need for them in descending than there is in ascending a stairway.

The short flight of steps through the main entrance to the first floor needs to be wider than those in the stairways proper, and can be constructed of stone or cement. The back stairways leading from the first floor to the basement can be more safely placed near the center of the building, for they are not likely to be used in case of fire.

3. BLACKBOARDS.

Nowhere in the world are blackboards used so extensively in schools as they are in America. They are essentially democratic and individual in their service, as contrasted with their use in countries where the teacher rules and guides with autocratic author-* ity, and is the source of a large part of the information given to the pupils. A large area of wall space set apart in classrooms for blackboards assumes that pupils will individually present to their fellow classmates and to the teacher the results of their study, so that the free give-and-take of criticism will result in an independent, selfhelpful assurance necessary to all good citizenship in our form of government. Blackboards are, then, not merely pedagogical conveniences but civic agencies worthy of consideration.

The history of blackboards is an interesting one, but for obvious reasons it would be irrelevant to recount it here. Suffice it to say, however, that they were used in Europe more than three centuries

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