that if a basement is thoroughly cemented, both floor and walls, no water can get into it. Contrary to the belief of a great many people who are just beginning their experience with cement, it is not impervious to water, and under a comparatively slight pressure water will readily find its way through well set and carefully made cement floors. Unless, therefore, those who introduce basement floors into a school building have placed the building on high land, with the ground sloping away from it rapidly in all directions, they must encircle it with a drain as indicated in Figure 1, or it is perfectly certain that no reasonable amount of cementing within will prevent the water from entering. I am insistent on this point, for the reason that I have seen almost no end of trouble and much unexpected expense grow out of neglect in this matter. It is not expensive, save in rare cases where buildings are badly placed, to drain the ground as indicated. The tiles needed are only such as farmers use in underdraining land, and the labor required to put them down can be done by any ordinary workman, with the exception of the leveling, and even this requires no expert service in many cases. Generally speaking, such drains save more than they cost. For when these are properly placed a great deal less care is required in finishing the basement, and often much expense in cement work can be saved.

It is never well to run drains under a basement floor, especially if they connect directly or indirectly with a sewer system. In fact, it is unsafe to connect the outside drains with sewers, for the gases and odors given off by sewage may filter through the ground and render it unwholesome. All drains, then, should come to the surface, or empty into a trap, rendering it impossible for sewer gas to collect in or about schoolhouses. Furthermore, it is wholly unnecessary, even in the case of large buildings, to put any drains. under the building, if drains have been placed all around them and deeper than the foundations or basement floors; for, since the ground under the building is protected from rains, no moisture can gather there unless it comes from the outside and is either forced up by the pressure of the waters on higher ground or pours in from the surface. But a drain outside will relieve all pressure from below and ordinary embankments will protect from surface water.

This drain should be about 6 or 8 feet outside the foundation walls, and if the tiles are sufficiently large and the drain has a sufficient fall to its outlet, the down pipes from the eave spouts can be made to deliver their water into them through solid and thoroughly waterproofed pipes. In this way all roof water can be quickly carried away. Common sense will teach those who undertake this to avoid overfeeding the drain pipes and to make sure the leaves and soot, which often gather on roofs in the fall time, do not clog the drains.

Sometimes in large and irregularly shaped buildings it is necessary to introduce laterals into the main drain in order to insure rapid, safe, and complete drainage of the ground all about the schoolhouse, but this can be left to the judgment of the architect, to be treated as the exigencies of the situation demand.

IV. PLANNING.

1. BASEMENTS.

It is highly advisable that a basement be constructed under all school buildings which are situated where adequate drainage can be provided. There are several reasons why this should be done, chief among which are the following:

A basement, when properly placed, provides a good location for engine rooms and central heating and ventilating plants. The noise and dirt incident to maintaining fires, removing ashes, and preparing fuel are least disturbing here, while the ducts designed to carry warm air from furnaces, or steam pipes from boilers, can be delivered into the classrooms more economically and effectively than if they had their source outside of the building. Of course, in large buildings, or for a group of buildings, it is far better to locate boilers in a separate structure if ample room is at command. But as conditions are to-day, nearly all heating plants for schoolhouses are located in the buildings themselves, and by the use of low-pressure boilers or hot-water systems there is comparatively little danger or annoyance. From the point of view of economy in construction there is often a great saving, for under ordinary conditions at the same expense more space can be provided in a basement than in any other part of the building. A well-constructed basement provided with good means of ventilation and underdrainage is one of the most effective agencies in preventing the rise of moisture in the walls and ground air into the classrooms and halls.

Room for fuel storage is quite important, and when thoroughly fireproofed the basement affords the most economical and convenient place. Naturally, this room and the furnace room should be closely connected and in every case made completely safe from fire hazards. This can be done by making the chimney safe, constructing the ceiling of reinforced concrete, and the walls surrounding of brick or concrete. Naturally, these rooms must be kept free from all ashes and cinders and all unnecessary combustibles.

Basements are generally used for the location of urinals and toilets. No one will say that this is an ideal location for them; but when due care is taken and good systems are correctly installed and intelligently kept there can not be very grave faults found with such location. There are some advantages and some dis

advantages. One advantage lies in the ease with which they can be isolated, another their accessibility from playgrounds. The chief disadvantages lie in lack of light and ventilation and a tendency to liberty in basement not so noticeable in similar rooms above ground. Playrooms in basements are not advisable unless these are near the level of the ground and are thoroughly lighted and ventilated. Cement floors are not satisfactory to play upon.

The ceilings of all basements should be at least 10 feet high, with not more than 4 feet of excavation. Even this is too deep if the soil is damp and the ground-water line high. For example, experience with a well-built modern high-school building situated on alluvial soil, with a long sloping rise behind it, taught me that the rush of water through such soil in wet weather is very difficult to meet. A thick cement floor would not keep it out, though the excavation was not greater than 3 feet. Proper drainage, however, brought relief.

On ground easily drained and higher than that anywhere in the immediate neighborhood it may be advisable, for the sake of appearance and expense, to go deeper, but this will have to be determined by local situations and local needs.

It is always well to remember that where some advantage is gained by going deeper into the ground than here recommended, areaways can be resorted to for securing light and ventilation.

If basement floors are nearer the first-floor joists than 10 feet, it will be difficult to install the plumbing and air ducts for heating and ventilation, if mechanical systems are used, without placing them so low that they will interfere with the heads of teachers and janitors, and at the same time offer opportunity for the children in their play to hit them "just for fun." It should be remembered that if air is to be delivered mechanically into schoolrooms there must be large ducts, well protected from cold and with no sharp turns or elbows. The failure to do this has rendered many expensive heating and ventilating plants unsatisfactory. Invariably, if the basement ceiling is too low, sacrifices will be made in the inclination and size of these ducts, and if not rendered seriously defective they will necessitate more power to deliver the air needed. And just here it is well to emphasize the fact that basement plans deserve a great deal of study before they have been finally accepted. In fact definite plans and specifications for basements ought to include all the plumbing, furnaces, air ducts, etc., in order that one can see exactly what the completed basement will include, where every appliance will be placed, and how it will fit. Failure to do this leads to many maladjustments which give trouble from the very start. For example, suppose the schoolhouse is to be near a busy street where much dust is raised by passing vehicles. At once one will say that no air

should be drawn from that side of the building into the schoolrooms, and that the basement arrangements must be made to meet this demand. Economy and practical sense both dictate an arrangement of the intake that will take advantage of the prevailing wind and not compel the fan to work against it. It is sometimes advisable to supply two openings for the intake of fresh air so as to be able to use the one best suited to the conditions of the day. These openings, as explained elsewhere, ought to be sufficiently above the ground to avoid dust and possible ground air.

On the whole, a good quality of cement makes the best floors for basements. Asphaltum can be used, but it is more likely to become rough and uneven and is more difficult to lay evenly and level. Still, it is more impervious to the rise of ground air than cement.

If finances will permit, the basement walls can be veneered with glazed light-colored brick or tile to good advantage. This treatment will greatly increase the light, render the walls more sanitary, and invite less defacement. Such walls are easily cleaned and kept bright and fresh. This treatment of toilet rooms, wash rooms, and bathrooms in basements is especially recommended.

Too much pains can not be taken in placing piers and walls in basements so as to intercept as little light as possible. Frequently, instead of a solid supporting wall, piers supporting cross beams can be used, thereby rendering the basement more open and airy and increasing the light. Sometimes arches can be constructed of brick or concrete, accomplishing the same ends without in any way increasing the expense or weakening the building.

2. THE CLASSROOM.

The primary unit of a school building is the classroom, and no definite plans for a building can be thought out until a decision has been reached as to the size, form, and number of classrooms desired. Since the number will vary to suit local conditions, it is not necessary at this time to discuss this point; but the size and form of classrooms are matters which ought to be decided in accordance with hygienic and pedagogical principles, and it is necessary to consider these points rather carefully.

(a) DIMENSIONS.

The size of the classroom for elementary school purposes ought to approximate the following requirements:

It should be sufficiently large to seat properly from 35 to 40 pupils, and at the same time have sufficient space left for aisles and the requisite furniture and apparatus. This limit as to the number of pupils is based on the theory that no teacher ought to be asked to teach more than 35 or 40 pupils, even though they all belong to the

same grade and are doing approximately the same work. It is not infrequent, however, to find more than 50 pupils to a classroom in the intermediate grades. One effective way to render this impossible is to make the room of such a size that when the seats for 35 or 40 pupils, the maximum, are properly placed there will be no room left for crowding in any more. This may seem a rather indirect way to prevent overcrowding in a room, but all practical schoolmen know that as long as there is room for more they are likely to be crowded in. A room 22 feet wide and 30 feet long will comfortably seat this

FIG. 2.-A schoolroom 22 by 30 feet, showing position of windows and desks, width of aisles, etc.

number, allowing ample space for aisles, blackboard workers, and space for reference table, sand tables, or any other pieces of apparatus regularly needed.

These dimensions are reduced from those recommended in the original edition of this bulletin for the reason that public opinion has developed during the past 10 years to such a degree as to permit such a reduction. In general, teachers are not called on now to handle so many children and hence the classroom can be reduced in the interest of economy of construction and upkeep. During the past 10 years little or no regret or dissatisfaction has been voiced by school officers because of these reduced dimensions. Therefore, these dimensions in length and breadth of a classroom for elementary