HE very name of Persia gives to the mind an immediate idea of remoteness and antiquity, lying as it does to the west of the continent of India, and on the further side of those countries which have only at a comparatively recent date been brought to the notice of Europeans —we refer more particularly to the Punjaub and Afghanistan. The name of Persia, moreover, has somewhat of a refined sound, savage as in reality it has always been, and still is for the most part, even at the present day. The fine persons and picturesque costumes of the few Persians amongst us, has tended to produce this impression; and this has been, to some extent, fostered by the Eastern tales, both in prose and verse, which in a past generation were so popular.

Persia is a vast empire which, for nearly two thousand years, has been united into one monarchy, although its actual limits have undergone, from time to time, great changes. The nation first rose into notice on the ruins of the great empires founded on the Euphrates, the river mentioned in the earliest record we possess, the Book of Genesis (ii. 14). Babylon was taken by Cyrus, whose empire extended wider than any before established in the world. At length it succumbed to the brave and disciplined armies of Alexander. His decease led to its being split into fragments; but Greek sovereigns continued during several centuries to reign over the empire. Then followed the monarchy of the Parthians; the Mahometan dynasty; and the successive invasions of the descendants of Zingis and Timur, and of the Turks. At length, in 1506, a native dynasty again arose in the person of Abbas. This appears to have been one of the most brilliant

periods of Persian history: but it was brief. Eastern luxury and voluptuousness brought the usual consequences; and in the beginning of the last century, the country was overrun by the Afghans, who carried fire and sword throughout it, and reduced its proudest capitals to ashes. The atrocities of the Afghans were avenged, and the independence of Persia vindicated, by Nadir Shah; but its modern history has almost been a continued succession of civil wars. It may be regarded as a token of a better state of things, that we have now a representative of Great Britain in the Persian

court.

The empire is bounded on the west by the Euphrates and the Tigris; on the north the Caucasian ridges form a vast and almost impassable barrier, with the Caspian Sea; to the south is the Persian Gulf; and on the east that vast desert of sand extending to the Indus, and the mountainous regions of Afghanistan and Beloochistan. The climate shows all the variations which we might expect from its situation whilst at one extremity there is the heat of India, at the other there are mountains clothed with perpetual snow.

:

These mountains constitute the most prominent feature of the country. Although they consist of many hundreds of miles of unbroken and inaccessible precipices, they are here and there intersected or broken by ravines, which are so narrow and steep, that they may be compared to vast cracks. Others again form a succession of the sharpest peaks, rising to a great height. Between some of these there are passes, or, as they are more appropriately called, "gorges," presenting ground of such a character as to baffle even the passage of a large force. This kind of scenery extends

towards India, the Kyber Pass in Cabool being a familiar and terrible example, connected with events too recent to be a story of the past. Our engraving of "The Gorge of Ishtazin" (P. 340) presents a striking view of this feature of the mountainous districts of Persia. It also displays the costume of the people. The reader will notice that this costume is of a mixed character, indicating the well-known fact that in the fifth century the descendants of Zingis were associated with those tribes to whom we now give the name of Turks.

As a whole, Persia may be regarded as a thinly peopled country, the numerous invasions, and the disturbed state of the empire consequent thereupon, being highly discouraging to agriculture; although vast plains have always been inhabited by those who followed a shepherd's life, as best suited to so uncertain a condition of society. The people are fond of riding, the Turkoman breed of horses being preferred, and the camel and mule are much used.

The productions of the country are not numerous salt is found in great quantities, as is bitumen and petroleum, and the Khorassan Hills produce the beautiful turquoise stone. The centre and south, although almost destitute of trees, yet produce abundant fruits; the vine flourishes in several provinces. The mulberry in the northern provinces is very plentiful, so much so as to render silk the staple product of the empire. The sugar-cane is found in some of the well-watered plains; but a deficiency of water is the great want of the country. Poppies are largely grown for the sake of opium, and roses for the highly-valued extract which they produce. A third of the surface of the land, however, is nothing more than a desert. The zoology includes most of the common domestic animals of Europe, with an excellent breed of mules, the camel, the ass, and the goat. The wild animals are lions, bears, tigers, wild boars, jackals, wolves, and hyenas. The government of Persia is an absolute autocracy, but this power has been variously used by the different shahs. There is no regular army, the chief dependence being placed on the wandering tribes, who are naturally of predatory, and therefore warlike, habits. Under these circumstances, it is not to be wondered at, that the tenure upon which the monarch holds his position is precarious; but, although perhaps it is a country which could be easily conquered, it would also be equally difficult to retain possession of it.

The population is variously estimated: perhaps it approaches 10,000,000. The people are gay and active, very ostentatious in their dress, lavishing upon their persons jewels and gold ornaments of all descriptions. There is no country where the beard is regarded with such veneration; during the day it is repeatedly washed, combed, and adjusted. The luxury and splendour of the great leads to an extensive demand for the finer fabrics. The wool of their flocks is very good, and is manu factured into beautiful carpets and shawls. They particularly excel in brocade and embroidery.

The nations of the East have never been celebrated for literature: but the Persians stand foremost amongst them in this respect. Poetry is their ruling passion. The names of Hafiz, Ferdusi, and Sadi, are classic even in Europe. It must, however, be added, that those poetical effusions are chiefly confined to love songs, and these are far from possessing a tone of morality.

Bearing in mind the influence necessarily exercised by Mohammedanism, a system of politico-religion so specially adapted to encourage the tendencies of corrupt human nature, this is certainly not to be wondered at. Borrowing a few religious truths from Christianity which have served to give a measure of weight to the teaching of the Koran, the system of Mahommed altogether ignores the actual nature of sin, and the real character of Divine holiness and righteousness. It makes its appeal to men's passions and to men's fears; offering to the one, spoil and sensual indulgence, and presenting to the other the sword. Its religious observances consist in gross and glaring superstitions-pilgrimages to Mecca, certain gesticulations and repetitions of some Arabic phrases or Koran passages, mostly not even understood by the person who uses them, charms or amulets written on paper or parchment as means of curing or preventing disease, and as protective against the injurious influences of bad men and evil spirits, credence given to traditionary stories of the most childish nature-these things make up the religion of the people. Can we marvel if the claims of morality are feebly recognized and less practised? By way of specimen, we append a few of the traditionary stories to which we have alluded.

It is asserted that Mahommed was sinless, and that the black spot of original sin was taken out of his breast, in his boyhood, in the following miraculous way:

"One day, Gabriel came to his majesty Mahommed, when he was playing with boys, and took hold of him, and laid him on the ground, and split his heart, and brought out a little bag of blood; and Gabriel said, 'This is the devil's part of you.' After that, he washed his majesty's heart in a golden vessel of zemzem water, then sewed it up, and replaced it."

"Mahommed one day wishing to convince Abújahál, one of his opponents. of his Divine mission, told him what he had been eating that day, saying, 'You have partaken of a fowl, half of which you have eaten, and left the rest.' On Abújahál's denying this, Gabriel, at Mahommed's command, produced immediately the remaining half of the fowl. When Abújahál still insisted on not having eaten of this fowl, Mahommed said, 'O fowl! Abújahál wants to make me a liar: therefore give testimony to the truth of my words, and to the falsehood of his.' Immediately the fowl began to speak, and said, 'I testify, O Mahommed! that thou art the prophet of God, and the best of all creatures; and I testify that Abújahál, the enemy of God, has eaten of me.'"

Once Mahommed went, accompanied by his followers, who were a large number, to the house of Abdúlláh. After he and Ali had eaten of the dish prepared for him, consisting of a roasted lamb, he gave it to his followers, and they all ate and got satiated, leaving nothing but the bones. They said then, 'O prophet of God! we want some milk to drink.' His majesty, having spread his handkerchief over the bones, said, 'O Lord! in like manner as Thou didst send Thy blessing on this animal, and satiate us with its meat, so bless it again, and do such an act, that we may drink of its milk.' Accordingly, through the Divine power, flesh grew on those bones, and the animal began to move, and got up, and its udder became full of milk. They then all drank, and filled, besides, all the basins in the house with its milk."

Mountains and stones and trees Mahommed made to speak, and give witness to his Divine mission. It is related, for instance::

"One day Mahommed made a sign to a tree to come. The tree immediately began to move, and, tearing up the earth like a mighty river, came to his majesty, and stood still, and said, 'Here I am come to thee, O Prophet! what is thy command?' His majesty said, 'I have ordered thee to come, to bear testimony to the unity of God and my Divine mission.' The

tree then said, with a loud voice, 'I bear testimony that God is one, and has none like Him; and I bear testimony that thou, O Mahommed! art His servant and prophet: He has sent thee in truth.""

To give an idea of the size of one of the angels bearing the throne of God, it is said, "Verily, the distance from the lower part of his ears to his shoulders is seventy years' journey." And as if this were not yet enough, it is said, in another tradition, that "there is an angel, the distance from whose ear to his eye is equal to 500 years of a bird's flight." Again, it is stated that Mahommed, in his journey to Heaven, saw an angel, "half of whose body consisted of snow, and the other half of fire: the fire did not melt the snow, and the snow did not extinguish the fire." Again, another tradition says, "It is related of Aúdj Ibn Anáq, that his stature was 23,333 cubits. He took a fish from the bottom of the sea, held it up to the disc of the sun, roasted, and ate it. The waters of the flood did not reach up to his knees. His age was 3,000 years, and his mother, Anáq, was his majesty Adam's daughter."

In regard to Paradise, besides many foolish and sensual things, it is said, "Verily, there are birds of different kinds in Paradise, every one as large as a camel, flying about in the fields of Paradise. As soon as one of the friends of Mahommed desires to eat one, they come immediately down before him, the feathers plucked off, and ready dressed without the need of fire, one side roasted, and the other boiled. When the believer has eaten as much as he has wanted, and said, 'Alhamdhú lilláh rab ál álamin!' i. e., Praised be God, the Lord of the universe! then the bird gets whole, and quickened again; and, flying up in the air, he boasts to the other birds of Paradise, and says, 'Who is like me? for of me has the friend of God eaten, by the Almighty's permission.'

These extracts will suffice to illustrate the superstition and darkness which prevails in Mahommedan Persia, and the consequent need of Christian missionary effort in that land.

Something has been done, and although the jealousy of the priesthood, and the fanaticism of the lower classes, has almost forbidden direct and continuous effort, there is no doubt seed has been sown which will in due time spring up.

The labours of Henry Martyn, the translator of the New Testament in Persian, furnish a striking instance of spiritual influence for good thus surviving in a land years after the labourer

has ceased from his work. As a most encouraging example of "seed found after many days," we transcribe a remarkable narrative which originally appeared in the pages of the "Asiatic Journal," showing the honourable remembrance in which this noble missionary long continued to be held in Persia. The writer of the narrative had been spending a few weeks at Shiraz some years previously.

"Having received an invitation to dine-or rather sup-with a Persian party in the city, I went, and found a number of guests assembled. The conversation was varied-grave and gay; chiefly of the latter complexion. Poetry was often the subject: sometimes philosophy, and sometimes politics, prevailed. Among the topics discussed, religion was one. There are so many sects in Persia, especially if we include the free-thinking classes, that the questions which grow out of such a discussion constitute no trifling resource for conversation. I was called upon, though with perfect good-breeding and politeness, to give an account of the tenets of our faith; and I confess that I was sometimes embarrassed by the pointed queries of my companions.

"Among the guests was a person who took but little part in the conversation, and who appeared to be intimate with none but the master of the house. He was a man below the middle age, of a serious countenance and mild deportment: they called him Mahomed Rahem. I thought that he frequently observed me with great attention, and watched every word I uttered, especially when the subject of religion was discussing. Once, when I expressed myself with some levity, this individual fixed his eyes upon me with such a peculiar expression of surprise, regret, and reproof, that I was struck to the very soul, and felt a strange mysterious wonder who he could be. I asked privately one of the party, who told me that he had been educated for a mollah, but had never officiated: and that he was a man of considerable learning, and much respected; but lived retired, and seldom visited even his most intimate friends. My informant added, that his only inducement to join the party had been the expectation of meeting an Englishman, as he was much attached to the English nation, and had studied our language and learning.

"This information increased my curiosity, which I determined to seek an opportunity of gratifying, by conversing with the object of it. A few days afterward I called upon Mahomed Rahem, and found him reading a volume of Cowper's poems! This circumstance led to an immediate discussion of the merits of English poetry, and European literature in general. I was perfectly astonished at the clear and accurate conceptions which he had formed upon these subjects, and at the precision with which he expressed himself in English. We discoursed on these and congenial topics for nearly two hours, till at length I ventured to sound his opinions on the subject of religion.

"You are a mollah, I am informed.' 'No,' said he, I was educated at a madrussa (college), but I never felt an inclination to be one of the priesthood.' 'The exposition of your religious volume,' I rejoined, 'demands a pretty close application to study: before a person can be qualified to teach the doctrines of the Koràn, I understand he must thoroughly examine and digest volumes of comments, which ascertain the sense of the text and the application of its injunctions. This is a laborious preparation, if a man be disposed conscientiously to fulfil his important functions.' As he made no remark, I continued, 'Our Scriptures are their own expositors. We are solicitous only that they should be read: and although some particular passages are not without difficulties, arising from the inherent obscurity of language, the faults of translation, or the errors of copyists, yet it is our boast that the authority of our Holy Scriptures is confirmed by the perspicuity and simplicity of their style, as well as precepts.'

"I was surprised that he made no reply to these observations. At the hazard of being deemed importunate, I proceeded to panegyrize the leading principles of Christianity, more particularly in respect to their moral and practical character; and happened, among other reflections, to suggest that, as no other concern was of so much importance to the human race as religion, and as only one faith could be the right, the subject admitted not of being regarded as indifferent, though too many did so regard it. Do not you esteem it so?' he asked. Certainly not,' I replied. "Then your indifference at the table of our friend Meerza Reeza, when the topic of religion was under consideration, was merely assumed, out of complaisance to Mussulmans, I presume?'

"I remembered the occasion to which he alluded, and recognised in his countenance the same expression, compounded half of pity, half of surprise, which it then exhibited. I owned that I had acted inconsistently, perhaps incautiously and imprudently: but I made the best defence I could; and disavowed, in the most solemn manner, any premeditated design to contemn the religion which I profess.

"I am heartily glad I was deceived,' he said; 'for sincerity in religion is our paramount duty. What we are, we should never be ashamed of appearing to be.' 'Are you a sincere Mussulman, then?' I boldly asked. An internal struggle seemed, for an instant, to agitate' his visage at length he answered mildly, 'No.' 'You are not a sceptic or freethinker?' 'No; indeed I am not.' What are you then? Be you sincere. Are you a Christian ?' 'I am,' he replied.

"I should vainly endeavour to describe the astonishment which seized me at this declaration. I surveyed Mahomed Rahem, at first, with a look which, judging from its reflection from his benign countenance, must have betokened suspicion, or even contempt. The consideration that he could have no motive to deceive me in this disclosure, which was of infinitely greater seriousness to himself than to me, speedily restored me to recollection, and banished every sentiment but joy.

I could not refrain from pressing silently his hand to my heart.

"He was not unmoved at this transport; but he betrayed no unmanly emotions. He told me that I had possessed myself of a secret which, in spite of his opinion that it was the duty of every one to wear his religion openly, he had hitherto concealed, except from a few who participated in his own sentiments.

"And whence came this happy change?' I asked. "I will tell you that likewise,' he replied. 'In the year 1223 (of the Hejira) there came to this city an Englishman, who taught the religion of Christ with a boldness hitherto unparalleled in Persia, in the midst of much scorn and ill-treatment from our mollahs, as well as the rabble. He was a beardless youth, and evidently enfeebled by disease. He dwelt among us for more than a year. I was then a decided enemy to infidels, as the Christians are termed by the followers of Mahomet; and I visited this teacher of the despised sect, with the declared object of treating him with scorn, and exposing his doctrines to contempt. Although I persevered for some time in this behaviour toward him, I found that every interview not only increased my respect for the individual, but diminished my confidence in the faith in which I was educated. His extreme forbearance towards the violence of his opponents, the calm and yet convincing manner in which he exposed the fallacies and sophistries by which he was assailed-for he spoke Persian excellentlygradually inclined me to listen to his arguments, to inquire dispassionately into the subject of them, and finally to read a tract which he had written in reply to a defence of Islamism by our chief mollahs. Need I detain you longer? The result of my examination was a conviction that the young disputant was right. Shame, or rather fear, withheld me from avowing this opinion. I even avoided the society of the Christian teacher, though he remained in the city so long. Just before he quitted Shiraz I could not refrain from paying him a farewell visit. Our conversation-the memory of it will never fade from the tablet of my

mind-sealed my conversion. He gave me a bookit has ever been my constant companion-the study of it has formed my most delightful occupation-its contents have often consoled me.'

"Upon this he put into my hands a copy of the New Testament in Persian. On one of the blank leaves was written- There is joy in Heaven over one sinner that repenteth-HENRY MARTYN.'”

It should be known that a "Moslem Mission Society" has recently been established, addressing its attention altogether and exclusively to Mohammedans. One of the chief supporters of this particular agency, the Rev. J. M. Arnold, Consular Chaplain at Batavia, in his valuable work, "The Koran and the Bible; or, Islam and Christianity," strongly urges the claims of the Society upon his countrymen at home. He justly says (and we commend his words to the consideration of our readers) :

"If no Missionary had as yet been sent; if there were as yet no school or station with some few genuine converts to cheer the undertaking, the obligation to go and do as we are bid would still be binding. For many a century has the Church annually put up the prayer that God would have mercy upon all Jews, Turks, infidels [i. e., Pagans], and heretics, and take from them all ignorance, hardness of heart, and contempt of His Word.' But the time, it is felt, has come when we ought to live more nearly as we pray;' to remember the solemn offices which the prayer necessarily involves; for it would be mockery, not prayer, to ask that God would take away 'all ignorance' of the Gospel, 'all hardness of heart,' and 'all contempt of His Word,' and yet do nothing to reduce that 'contempt,' to remove that 'ignorance,' and to soften that 'hardness.' Q. S, ROUND,

Lincoln's Inn.

ATURDAY, the 17th day of July, 1619, Bernard Calvert, of Andover, about three o'clock in the morning, tooke horse at St. George's Church in Southwarke, and came to Dover about seaven of the clocke the same morning, where a barge, with eight oares, formerly sent from London thither, attended his suddaine coming: he instantly

tooke barge, and went to Callice, and in the same barge returned to Dover, about three of the clocke the same day, where, as well there as in diverse other places, he had layed sundry swift horses, besides guides: he rode back from thence to St. George's Church in Southwarke the same evening, a little after eight o'clock, fresh and lusty.-Stow's Annals.

FF