8. HISTORY, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. President Charles K. Adams, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Ray Greene Huling, principal of the high school, New Bedford, Mass. Prof. James Harvey Robinson, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Henry P. Warren, head master of the Albany Academy, Albany, N. Y. Prof. Woodrow Wilson, College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. 9. GEOGRAPHY (PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, AND METEOROLOGY). Prof. Thomas C. Chamberlin, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Prof. George L. Collie, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Prof. W. M. Davis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Delwin A. Hamlin, master of the Rice Training School, Boston, Mass. Prof. Mark W. Harrington, the Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. Francis W. Parker, principal of the Cook County Normal School, Englewood, Ill. The 90 members of the conferences were divided as follows: Forty-seven were in the service of colleges or universities, 42 in the service of schools, and 1 was a Government official formerly in the service of a university. A considerable number of the college men, however, had also had experience in schools. Each conference, in accordance with a recommendation of the committee of ten, chose its own chairman and secretary; and these two officers prepared the report of each conference. Six of the chairmen were college men and 3 were school men, while of the secretaries 2 were college men and 7 school men. The committee of ten requested that the reports of the conferences should be sent to their chairman by the 1st of April, 1893-three months being thus allowed for the preparation of the reports. Seven conferences substantially conformed to this request of the committee; but the reports from the conferences on natural history and geography were delayed until the second week in July. The committee of ten, being of course unable to prepare their own report until all the reports of the December conferences had been received, were prevented from presenting their report, as they had intended, at the education congress which met at Chicago July 27-29. All the conferences sat for three days. Their discussions were frank, earnest, and thorough; but in every conference an extraordinary unity of opinion was arrived at. The nine reports are characterized by an amount of agreement which quite surpasses the most sanguine anticipations. Only two conferences present minor.ty reports, namely, the conference on physics, astronomy, and chemistry, and the conference on geography; and in the first case the dissenting opinions touch only two points in the report of the majority, one of which is unimportant. In the great majority of matters brought before each conference the decision of the conference was unanimous. When one considers the different localities, institutions, professional experiences, and personalities represented in each of the conferences, the unanimity developed is very striking, and should carry great weight. Before the 1st of October, 1893, the reports of the conferences had all been printed, after revision in proof by the chairmen of the conferences, respectively, and had been distributed to the members of the committee of ten, together with a preliminary draft of a report for the committee. With the aid of comments and suggestions received from members of the committee a second draft of this report was made ready in print to serve as the groundwork of the deliberations of the committee at their final meeting. This meeting was held at Columbia College from the 8th to the 11th of November, 1893, inclusive, every member being present except Professor King, who is spending the current academic year in Europe. The points of view and the fields of work of the different members of the committee being fortunately various, the discussions at this prolonged meeting were vigorous and comprehensive, and resulted in a thorough revision of the preliminary report. This third revise having been submitted to the members of the committee, a cordial agreement on both the form and the substance of the present report, with the exceptions stated in the minority report of President Baker, was arrived at after a correspondence which extended over three weeks. The report itself embodies the numerous votes and resolutions adopted by the committee. Professor King, having received in Europe the conference reports, the two prelim. inary drafts of the committee's report, and the third revise, desired to have his name signed to the final report. The council and the public will doubtless be impressed, at first sight, with the great number and variety of important changes urged by the conferences; but on a careful reading of the appended reports it will appear that the spirit of the conferences was distinctly conservative and moderate, although many of their recommendations are of a radical nature. The conferences which found their tasks the most difficult were the conferences on physics, astronomy, and chemistry; natural history; history, civil government, and political economy; and geography; and these four conferences make the longest and most elaborate reports, for the reason that these subjects are to-day more imperfectly dealt with in primary and secondary schools than are the subjects of the first five conferences. The experts who met to confer together concerning the teaching of the last four subjects in the list of conferences all felt the need of setting forth in an ample way what ought to be taught, in what order, and by what method. They ardently desired to have their respective subjects made equal to Latin, Greek, and mathematics in weight and influence in the schools; but they knew that educational tradition was adverse to this desire, and that many teachers and directors of education felt no confidence in these subjects as disciplinary material. Hence the length and elaboration of these reports. In less degree, the conferences on English and other modern languages felt the same difficulties, these subjects being relatively new as substantial elements in school programmes. The committee of ten requested the conferences to make their reports and recommendations as specific as possible. This request was generally complied with; but, very naturally, the reports and recommendations are more specific concerning the selection of topics in each subject, the best methods of instruction, and the desirable appliances or apparatus, than concerning the allotment of time to each subject. The allotment of time is a very important matter of administrative detail; but it presents great difficulties, requires a comprehensive survey of the comparative claims of many subjects, and in different parts of the country is necessarily affected by the various local conditions and historical developments. Nevertheless, there will be found in the conference reports recommendations of a fundamental and farreaching character concerning the allotment of programme time to each subject. It might have been expected that every conference would have demanded for its subject a larger proportion of time than is now commonly assigned to it in primary and secondary schools; but, as a matter of fact, the reports are noteworthy for their moderation in this respect, especially the reports on the old and well-established subjects. The Latin conference declares that "in view of the just demand for more and better work in several other subjects of the preparatory course, it seemed clear to the conference that no increase in the quantity of the preparation in Latin should be asked for." Among the votes passed by the Greek conference will be noticed the following: "That in making the following recommendations this conference desires that the average age at which pupils now enter college should be lowered rather than raised; and the conference urges that no addition be made in the advanced requirements in Greek for admission to college." The mathematical conference recommends that the course in arithmetic in elementary schools should be abridged, and recommends only a moderate assignment of time to algebra and geometry. The conference on geography says of the present assignment of time to geography in primary and secondary schools that "it is the judgment of the conference that too much time is given to the subject in proportion to the results secured. It is not their judgment that more time is given to the subject than it merits, but that either more should be accomplished or less time taken to attain it." Anyone who reads these nine reports consecutively will be struck with the fact that all these bodies of experts desire to have the elements of their several subjects taught earlier than they now are, and that the conferences on all the subjects except the languages desire to have given in the elementary schools what may be called perspective views, or broad surveys, of their respective subjects-expecting that in later years of the school course parts of these same subjects will be taken up with more amplitude and detail. The conferences on Latin, Greek, and the modern languages agree in desiring to have the study of foreign languages begin at a much earlier age than now-the Latin conference suggesting by a reference to European usage that Latin be begun from three to five years earlier than it commonly is now. The conference on mathematics wish to have given in elementary schools not only a general survey of arithmetic, but also the elements of algebra, and concrete geometry in connection with drawing. The conference on physics, chemistry, and astronomy urge that nature studies should constitute an important part of the elementary school course from the very beginning. The conference on natural history wish the elements of botany and zoology to be taught in the primary schools. The conference on history wish the systematic study of history to begin as early as the tenth year of age, and the first two years of study to be devoted to mythology and to biography for the illustration of general history as well as of American history. Finally, the conference on geography recommend that the earlier course treat broadly of the earth, its environment and inhabitants, extending freely into fields which in later years of study are recognized as belonging to separate sciences. In thus claiming entrance for their subjects into the earlier years of school attendance, the conferences on the newer subjects are only seeking an advantage which the oldest subjects have long possessed. The elements of language, number, and geography have long been imparted to young children. As things now are, the high school teacher finds in the pupils fresh from the grammar schools no foundation of clementary mathematical conceptions outside of arithmetic; no acquaintance with algebraic language, and no accurate knowledge of geometrical forms. As to botany, zoology, chemistry, and physics, the minds of pupils entering the high school are ordinarily blank. When college professors endeavor to teach chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, meteorology, or geology to persons of 18 or 20 years of age, they discover that in most instances new habits of observing, reflecting, and recording have to be painfully acquired by the students-habits which they should have acquired in early childhood. The college teacher of history finds in like manner that his subject has never taken any serious hold on the minds of pupils fresh from the secondary schools. He finds that they have devoted astonishingly little time to the subject, and that they have acquired no habit of historical investigation, or of the comparative examination of different historical narratives concerning the same periods or events. It is inevitable, therefore, that specialists in any one of the subjects which are pursued in the high schools or colleges should earnestly desire that the minds of young children be stored with some of the elementary facts and principles of their subject, and that all the mental habits, which the adult student will surely need, begin to be formed in the child's mind before the age of 14. It follows, as a matter of course, that all the conferences except the conference on Greek, make strong suggestions concerning the programmes of primary and grammar schools-generally with some reference to the subsequent programmes of sec ondary schools. They desire important changes in the clementary grades, and the changes recommended are all in the direction of increasing simultaneously the interest and the substantial training quality of primary and grammar school studies. If anyone feels dismayed at the number and variety of the subjects to be opened to children of tender age, let him observe that while these nine conferences desire each their own subject to be brought into the courses of elementary schools, they all agree that these different subjects should be correlated and associated one with another by the programme and by the actual teaching. If the nine conferences had sat all together as a single body, instead of sitting as detached and even isolated bodies, they could not have more forcibly expressed their conviction that every subject recommended for introduction into elementary and secondary schools should help every other; and that the teacher of each single subject should feel responsible for the advancement of the pupils in all subjects, and should distinctly contribute to this advancement. On one very important question of general policy, which affects profoundly the preparation of all school programmes, the committee of ten and all the conferences are absolutely unanimous. Among the questions suggested for discussion in cach conference were the following: "(7) Should the subject be treated differently for pupils who are going to college, for those who are going to a scientific school, and for those who, presumably, are going to neither? "(8) At what age should this differentiation begin, if any be recommended?" The seventh question is answered unanimously in the negative by the conferences, and the eighth therefore needs no answer. The committee of ten unanimously agree with the conferences. Ninety-eight teachers, intimately concerned either with the actual work of American secondary schools, or with the results of that work as they appear in students who come to college, unanimously declare that every subject which is taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destination of the pupil may be, or at what point his education is to cease. Thus, for all pupils who study Latin, or history, or algebra, for example, the allotment of time and the method of instruction in a given school should be the same year by year. Not that all the pupils should pursue every subject for the same number of years; but so long as they do pursue it, they should all be treated alike. It has been a very general custom in American high schools and academies to make up separate courses of study for pupils of supposed different destinations, the proportions of the several studies in the different courses being various. The principle laid down by the conferences will, if logically carried out, make a great simplification in secondary school programmes. It will lead to each subject's being treated by the school in the same way by the year for all pupils, and this, whether the individual pupil be required to choose between courses which run through several years, or be allowed some choice among subjects year by year. Persons who read all the appended reports will observe the frequent occurrence of the statement that, in order to introduce the changes recommended, teachers more highly trained will be needed in both the elementary and the secondary schools. There are frequent expressions to the effect that a higher grade of scholarship is needed in teachers of the lower classes, or that the general adoption of some method urged by a conference must depend upon the better preparation of teachers in the high schools, model schools, normal schools, or colleges in which they are trained. The experienced principal or superintendent in reading the reports will be apt to say to himself: "This recommendation is sound, but can not be carried out without teachers who have received a training superior to that of the teachers now at my command." It must be remembered, in connection with these admissions, or expressions of anxiety, that the conferences were urged by the committee of ten to advise the committee concerning the best possible-almost the ideal-treatment of each subject taught in a secondary school course, without, however, losing sight of the actual condition of American schools, or pushing their recommendations beyond what might reasonably be considered attainable in a moderate number of years. The committee believe that the conferences have carried out wisely the desire of the committee, in that they have recommended improvements which, though great and seldom to be made at once and simultaneously, are by no means unattainable. The cxisting agencies for giving instruction to teachers already in service are numerous; and the normal schools and the colleges are capable of making prompt and successful efforts to supply the better trained and equipped teachers for whom the reports of the conferences call. Many recommendations will be found to be made by more than one conference. Thus, all the conferences on foreign languages seem to agree that the introduction of two foreign languages in the same year is inexpedient; and all of them insist on practice in reading the foreign language aloud, on the use of good English in translating, and on practice in translating the foreign language at sight, and in writing it. Again, all the conferences on scientific subjects dwell on laboratory work by the pupils as the best means of instruction, and on the great utility of the genuine laboratory notebook; and they all protest that teachers of science need at least as thorough a special training as teachers of languages or mathematics receive. In reading the reports, many instances will be noticed in which different conferences have reached similar conclusions without any consultation, or have followed a common line of thought. Your committee now proceed to give summaries of the most important recommendations made by the conferences as regards topics and methods, reserving the subject of time allotment. But in so doing, they desire to say that the reading of these summaries should not absolve anyone interested in the general subject from reading with care the entire report of every conference. The several reports are so full of suggestions and recommendations concisely and cogently stated that it is impossible to present adequate abstracts of them. 1. LATIN. An important recommendation of the Latin conference is the recommendation that the study of Latin be introduced into American schools earlier than it now is. They recommend that translation at sight form a constant and increasing part of the examinations for admission to college and of the work of preparation. They next urge that practice in writing Latin should not be dissociated from practice in reading and translating; but, on the contrary, that the two should be carried on with equal steps. The conference desire the schools to adopt a greater variety of Latin authors for beginners, and they give good reasons against the exclusive use of Cæsar's Gallic War. They object to the common practice of putting the teaching of beginners into the hands of the youngest teachers, who have the slenderest equipment of knowledge and experience. They dwell on the importance of attending to pronunciation and reading aloud, to forms, vocabulary, syntax, and order, and to the means of learning to understand the Latin before translating it; and they describe and urge the importance of a higher ideal in translation than now prevails in secondary schools. The formal recommendations of the conference, fourteen in number, will be found concisely stated in numbered paragraphs at the close of their report. 2. GREEK. The conference on Greek agree with the conference on Latin in recommending the cultivation of reading at sight in schools, and in recommending that practice in translation into the foreign language should be continued throughout the school course. They urge that three years be the minimum time for the study of Greek in schools; provided that Latin be studied four years. They would not have a pupil begin the study of Greek without a knowledge of the elements of Latin. They recommend the substitution of portions of the Hellenica for two books of the Anab |