mildness and benignity. There had, however, recently been a contest between the Greek and Latin monks in Palestine, about shrines and relics and the Holy Places. It was a mere contest of religious parties for supremacy in matters of religion, in which the Turkish Government took no part. But the Greek Church was essentially Russian, and the policy of Russia had for ages been a policy of aggression. Taking advantage, therefore, of this obscure quarrel between the Greek and Latin monks, Nicholas, the Emperor of Russia, true to the policy of his ancestors, claimed to protect the orthodox, that is the Greek, religion in Turkey. In effect, he demanded to rule over that section of the Sultan's servants who professed the Greek religion. This demand was naturally rejected, and the autocrat poured his troops into Wallachia. Here they were met by the Turks under Omar Pasha, and, in a pitched battle fought at Oltenitza, were defeated. The success of Omar Pasha's troops roused the military pride of Russia to be beaten by Turks was considered a disgrace. But Russia soon had her revenge. The Turkish fleet lay at anchor in the harbour of Sinope, and they were suddenly attacked by a Russian squadron, and destroyed. Four thousand Turks fell by this act of treachery. This dreadful slaughter caused a profound sensation in Europe. It was felt more keenly in England and France, because at the time when this foul deed was committed their combined fleets were lying in the Bosphorus for the purpose of protecting the Turkish capital and coasts. The attack looked like defiance of the naval strength of the two powers; but the result was that the Black Sea, often called a "Russian lake," was taken possession of by the fleets of England and France, and not a Russian ship was allowed to spread its sails thereon. 1854. Such was the state of Europe and the Eastern question at the opening of the new year. All hopes of peace had vanished. The Czar had been lavish, in his negotiations with England and France, of his professions of peaceable views; but the massacre of Sinope had produced universal sorrow and indignation, and had destroyed all confidence in his assurances. At this time the Western Powers had summoned him to lay down arms; but the entrance of the allied fleets into the Black Sea precluded the hope that he would return a favourable answer. The whole country, therefore, prepared for war, and France was eager for the din of battle. The anxiety caused by the state of our foreign relations was increased by a scarcity of corn. The food of Europe was deficient, and this had an effect upon all classes; only the agriculturists flourished, the price of corn being so high that they received more than ordinary profit on their capital and labour. In this state of affairs the meeting of Parliament was anticipated with great interest by all ranks of the community; especially as it was feared that ministers hesitated to make war with Russia. Parliament opened on the 30th of January. Her Majesty in her opening speech expressed regret that the differences existing between Russia and the Ottoman Porte had not been settled, but still expressed a hope that the united efforts of England and France might restore peace to the world. At the same time her Majesty stated it would be necessary to increase our naval and military forces, lest war should prove inevitable. The question of peace or war formed the chief topic in Parlia ment after the opening of the session some advocating peace, but the majority of members giving their opinion in favour of war. But the question was soon decided. In March the suspense in which the nation had been kept for a whole year terminated: a royal message to Parliament proclaimed to England and the world that there should be war with Russia. To this message all parties in Parliament and out of Parliament responded cheerfully. It was known and felt that great sacrifices must be made to sustain such a war; but almost every man from the bottom of his heart coincided with the dread resolve. The massacre of Sinope had raised the spirit of the nation, and hence the war became one of the most popular in which England had ever been engaged. Supplies were readily voted in Parliament, and throughout the length and breadth of the land the people offered themselves as soldiers and as sailors to fight the battles of their country. This parliamentary session was stamped with peculiar features. Thirty-nine years had passed away since there had been any session to be compared with it in character. It was essentially a war session. The results as regards domestic measures were therefore very barren. At its close, also, the Government was left in diminished influence and efficiency, several changes having taken place in the ministry during the session. In the meantime war had commenced. An English army under Lord Raglan and a French army under Marshal St. Arnaud had been landed on the shores of the Bosphorus. The relation in which these two armies stood to each other was well expressed in an order of the day which the French marshal issued before quitting France: - "France and England, rivals in other times, are now friends and allies. The two countries have learned to esteem each other while combating. United, they command the seas, and the fleets will feed the army while famine is in the camp of the enemy. Soldiers the eagles of the Empire resume their flight, not to menace Europe, but to defend it. Bear them on once more, as your fathers bore them before you; and, like them, let us all, before we quit France, repeat the cry which so often led them to victory, -Vive l'Empereur.' 9.99 For nearly two months British and French troops successively landed at Gallipoli, Constantinople, or Scutari. These troops carried with them all the enormous matériel which is the distinctive characteristic of modern warfare. The depôts on the shores of the Hellespont and Bosphorus were to be considered as the first move in that game of giants of which no one could see the end. Constantinople became in fact the base of all subsequent operations. While the troops of England and France were moving towards the scene of strife, those of Turkey and Russia were struggling with each other. The Turks bravely drove the Russians out of Citate, and all attempts to regain it were vain. The Russians subsequently crossed the Danube, and in a short time all the small forts in the Dobrudscha fell into their hands, and they were enabled to lay siege to Silistria. But it was in vain that they poured all their forces against this stronghold of the Turks. Each time they attempted its capture they were hurled back by its devoted defenders with immense loss. Under the command of two English officers, Lieutenant Nasmyth, and Captain Butler, the Turks fought like lions, and the Russians were compelled to raise the siege. In the last assault the brave Captain Butler fell mortally wounded he was the first British soldier that fell in the war, and he was one of the bravest and the best. The Russians retreated to Bucharest. : The first British cannon was fired by the navy in April, in revenge for an insult offered by the Russians in firing upon a flag of truce. Odessa, that great Russian emporium of corn in the Black Sea, was bombarded, and most of its batteries were silenced and destroyed. As for the Russian fleet, it had become useless. Shut up in the harbour of Sebastopol, it dared not set sail from thence, for the English and French fleets were masters of the Black Sea. It was in vain that battle was offered: the Russian navy, which had destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope, remained under the guardianship of the guns at Sebastopol until, in the progress of the war, the Russians were compelled to sink or burn them to the water's edge. Not a Russian ship engaged in that massacre escaped the general destruction. By the middle of May, the French and English armies were in sufficient force and organisation to take the field whenever they might be required. At a council of war, it was resolved to form a camp at Varna. It was while they were at Varna that the siege of Silistria was raised, and hence their services were not required in that quarter. Most gladly would they have marched thither, for an enemy appeared among them against whom it was in vain to contend. The valleys in which they were encamped were pestilential in the highest degree, and they were swept off by hundreds and by thousands. As their dead comrades were being carried to the grave, the living prayed to be led out against the enemy rather than die the inglorious death which was so fatally decimating their ranks. About the same time, also, the Russians were dying by thousands in the Dobrudscha, which is the Scythia of the ancients, -a dreary and pestilential wilderness, where neither brooks nor springs of water are found, and the air in the heat of summer is fraught with pestilence. Added to this, as they were retreating to Bucharest, they were overtaken by the Ottoman forces at Giurgevo, by whom they were signally defeated. Negotiations for peace still went on, but without effect. Austria attempted to mediate, but in vain; and that power was too cowardly or too treacherous to enter the field with the allies, or the war might probably have been soon concluded. Hence, as the continuance of war was inevitable, it was resolved to invade the Crimea. It was necessary that Russia should be shorn of some of her mighty strength; and nowhere else could so telling and severe a blow be dealt as at Sebastopol. It was that stronghold which gave the Czar the dominion of the Black Sea; and in its harbour was the fleet which was always ready to threaten the approaches to Constantinople and the Bosphorus. Great was the joy of the troops when the order came for re-embarkation. All gloomy despondency vanished: they were going to face the enemy -a prospect always cheering to French and English troops. Men scarcely able to drag one weary limb before another suddenly gained strength, and the greatest activity prevailed throughout the two camps. In one day, 40,000 English and French warriors, with a powerful artillery, were precipitated upon a hostile coast, coast where tens of thousands of Russian soldiers were drawn up in order of battle to dispute their onward progress. а The allied forces landed at Eupatoria on the 14th of September, the anniversary of the entrance of Napoleon into Moscow. In four days they were ready to march upon Sebastopol. As yet no enemy except a few Cossacks had been seen; but it was soon disco.. vered that the Russians had formed a strong camp on the heights to the south of the river Alma. On the morning of the 19th orders were given to march, the French forming the right, being supported by 7000 Turks, and the British forming the left wing, the post of danger and honour. The spectacle presented from the heights was magnificent; the whole army advanced as if for a review. There were neither enclosures nor villages to impede their progress, and they moved forwards in perfect silence. Some Cossacks were seen in the distance; but on this day no enemy disputed their onward movement. Beyond the river Alma, however, on the hill-sides were seen dark moving masses of men and glittering lance-heads and bayonets. This was the Russian army under the command of Prince Menschikoff. The allies bivouacked for the night on some rising ground south of the river Bulganac, which winds beneath cliffs, from the summit of which a gentle declivity, broken by ravines, leads down to the Alma. The French rested near the sea, next to them the Turks, and the English further inland,—the three camps forming a line nearly three miles in extent, at right angles with the seashore. Between the opposing armies there was a distance of about five miles: the fires of the allies shone out brightly on the hillside, and seemed to be reflected back by the Russian fires on the opposite heights. But the night was cold and damp, and the watch-fires were mere flashes, which gave little heat and comfort to the weary soldier. Morning broke on the 20th of September-the day of the battle of the Alma-amid a busy camp, a buckling on of accoutrements, and a harnessing of horses. Again the allies set forward on their march in the order they had observed the day before. The French came first into contact with the enemy, their task being to turn the flank of the Russians, while the English attacked them in the front. It was one o'clock before the French had made much progress. At that time their columns were seen struggling up the hills where the Russians were posted covered by a cloud of skirmishers, whose fire seemed most deadly. Once they paused, but it was only to collect their skirmishers; for as soon as they had formed, they ran up the hill at the pas de charge, and at once broke up the Russians, who fled in disorder before them. In the meantime our troops had been exposed to a heavy Russian fire, which they did not return: they were ordered to lie down, and for a short time they remained passive. It was no sooner reported, however, that the French had crossed the Alma, than the order to advance was given. At the command, up rose those serried masses, and, passing through a fearful shower of round case-shot and shell, they dashed into the Alma, and floundered through its waters, which were literally, torn into foam by the deadly hail. And now commenced one of the most bloody and deadly struggles in the annals of war. Led by their brave commanders, the British troops struggled up the heights in masses, and though mowed down by the murderous fire of the batteries by fifties and by hundreds, they halted not till they had reached the batteries and captured them. "Highlanders," said Sir Colin Campbell, ere they came to the charge, "I am going to ask a favour of you: it is, |