In the sea of Azoff our fleets committed great devastation. Many towns were captured, and some destroyed. Kertch, Yenikale, Fort Paul, Anapa, and Sondguk Kale were evacuated by the Russians, and granaries and stores were destroyed by the allies at Arabat, Genitchi, Berdiansk, Mariopol, and Taganrog. In the Baltic, the French and English fleets, during this year, bombarded and destroyed Sveaborg, and blockaded Cronstadt. The English fleet was this year under the command of Admiral Dundas, and great exploits were anticipated under his direction of the Baltic operations, but they were doomed to be disappointed. In the White Sea similar events took place as in the Sea of Azoff. Several towns were captured or destroyed, and the Russian forces made no attempts at defence. Everywhere, in all points of the Russian dominions, disaster and defeat were witnessed. One signal success only this year attended her arms, and that was coupled with circumstances which made it of a doubtful character. In Asiatic Turkey a large Russian army had laid siege to Kars, which was defended by the Turks under the command of General Williams. Most heroically did the garrison of Kars hold out against their numerous opponents. Assault after assault was defeated, and on one occasion with a loss to the Russians of 2500 killed, and 5000 wounded; and it was only when all provisions and all hope of succour failed that the heroic defenders of this devoted city surrendered; and even then it was under circumstances which did them honour. "General Williams," said the conqueror Mouravieff, "you have made yourself a name in history, and posterity will stand amazed at the endurance, the courage, and the discipline which this siege has called forth in the remains of an army. Let us arrange a capitulation that will satisfy the demands of war, without outraging humanity." Mouravieff proved himself to be one of the most skilful, as well as the most persevering and humane, of all the Russian generals engaged in this war. After the capture of the south of Sebastopol the allies took possession of its ruins, and made them their winter quarters. Although it was a heap of ruins, yet it was better winter quarters than the trenches; and the winter was spent in comparative comfort. As it passed away great preparations were made in England, France, and the Crimea for the final destruction of the Russian power in the Black Sea. Had the war continued, a great effort would have been made by the allies during the next campaign to have achieved what they had designed-the subjugation of the whole of the Crimea. But in the midst of this din of war and preparations for its continuance, there were still hopes of peace. Although Austria would not join in the deadly conflict, she offered to become a mediator, and her offer was accepted by the allies. For a long time the Czar and his counsellors held out against the terms offered, but at length, taught wisdom by experience, all that the allies demanded was granted. These terms comprised "four points." The first abolished the Russian protectorate in the Danubian principalities; the second freed that important river the Danube from all political obstructions; the third closed the Black Sea against all fleets except a few light Turkish and Russian vessels, which were to act as a maritime police or coast-guard; the fourth, relating to the Christian subjects of the Porte, placed those Christians under the protection of all the contracting powers, without any preference to the Russian government. Over and above these four points, the allies reserved to themselves the right of proposing special conditions on minor but yet important matters. It was on the 10th of January, 1856, that the Russian acceptance of these terms became known in Vienna, and a few hours afterwards in London and Paris. At the seat of war an armistice was agreed upon: and the allies and their antagonists rested for a while from the din of battle. Happily the war was not renewed. A conference was held at Paris, to which England, France, Austria, Russia, Turkey, Sardinia, and finally Prussia, each sent two representatives. After much discussion these diplomatists finally signed the four points, and peace was restored to the world. British, French, and Sardinian warriors returned to their native homes amidst the acclamations and hearty welcomes of their admiring countrymen! The sword was again returned to its scabbard; and long may it there rest! May peace and plenty long crown our happy isle! CHAP. XXII. NOTICE OF THE RELIGION, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS, LITERATURE, ARTS, COMMERCE, AND MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE LAST PERIOD OF ENGLISH HISTORY. Religion.-THE principal events connected with the religious history of this period have been recorded in the previous pages. They chiefly consisted in legislative acts tending towards a more enlarged system of toleration. The established church remained as it does still most intimately connected with the state, but a greater liberty of conscience was allowed to all bodies of Protestant sectaries. By the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, the Roman Catholic Relief Bill, and other measures of a similar tendency, persons not in connection with the Established Church have been placed on nearly the same footing as churchmen, with respect to political rights and privileges, and there are few offices and dignities from which any class of British subjects is excluded on account of religious opinions. Even the Jews, who for ages have been trodden under foot, and looked upon as outcasts from society in every country in Europe, have been here permitted to have a voice in the great councils of the nation. Government and Laws.- Concerning the government of this period a few words will suffice, for in England it has remained essentially the same as it was in the last period noticed in this History. A great change, however, took place in the constitution of Ireland, in the abolition of its parliament, as has been mentioned in a previous page. Many important alterations were made in the criminal jurisprudence of England, numerous barbarous statutes were erased from the statute-book, and others rendered more consonant with the enlightened spirit of the age. Mercy has been blended with justice in a remarkable degree; and though some laws still require modification, the British code may be said to be generally worthy of a Christian community. Literature. — The progress of literature in this period has been very remarkable. In the middle of the last century it had lost almost all traces of originality. Invention was discouraged, research unvalued, and the examination of nature little prosecuted. It seems to have been considered that the treasures accumulated in the preceding age were sufficient for all national purposes, and that the sole work of authors was to reproduce what had been already written in a more elegant shape, and a more polished style. Our literature, however, did not long retain this servile character. The American war first, and then the French revolution, broke the chains that had thus fettered the public mind, and works of great excellence, too numerous to mention, appeared in every department. Poets, historians, theologians, critics, and scientific writers appeared again, whose productions are still generally known and read. Cheap literature has become so common, that books are now as easily obtained by the poor, as they were by the rich at former periods. One striking feature of the literature of this age is displayed in what is termed "the Periodical Press," in which reviews and magazines hold a high rank. But amidst much that is excellent, there have also appeared works destructive to morality and religious principles, and the press has occasionally proved a mighty engine for evil as well as for good. Infidel publications, and novels of an immoral tendency, abound; so that it becomes especially necessary for the young, or those who may choose for them, to exercise care and judgment in their selection. An immoral book well written is like a poisoned fountain that runs for ever: the author of such a book may do mischief as long as the world lasts, he is a nuisance to future ages, and lays a snare for those who are yet unborn. The poet says justly: "Books are not seldom talismans and spells Surrender judgment hoodwink'd. Some the style Of error, leads them by a tune entranced; While sloth seduces more; too weak to bear The insupportable fatigue of thought, And swallowing, therefore, without pause or choice, COWPER. Arts. The arts, as well as literature, have made a remarkable progress in this period; and agriculture, architecture, painting, and music have advanced by rapid strides towards perfection. A remarkable revival of the art of wood-engraving has also taken place, and it derives its principal interest from being applicable to the illustration of books. In the English school of painting, artists have appeared who have immortalised their names by works worthy to be compared to the great productions of the old masters. Thus the portraits of Sir Joshua Reynolds have been said to possess the simplicity of Titian, the vigour of Rembrandt, and the elegance and delicacy of Vandyke. It was in this period that the Royal Academy was founded, by which the art of painting has received great encouragement. Sculpture also has made rapid progress, and the names of Banks, Bacon. Nollekens, Flaxman, and Chantrey, are justly celebrated. Line-engraving, in the hands of Woolett and Strange, was brought to a degree of perfection it had never yet reached, and which has never since been equalled. The arts of mezzotinto and lithography have, likewise, been adapted with great success, for the purpose of illustrating popular works. In the useful arts, the most important event that has happened for many ages belongs to the period now under consideration. It is the era of the general introduction of Railways. Something of the kind had previously been known at the collieries, but in the year 1825 a public road of this kind for the transport of goods and passengers was in use in Durham; in 1830 that between Liverpool and Manchester was opened with great rejoicings, which, however, were unfortunately damped by the fatal accident that put an end to the life of Mr. Huskisson, recently one of the ministers. In 1837 the first London Railway, the North-Western, was opened to the public, though only for a short distance. The beneficial results of this wonderfully-rapid mode of travelling are so numerous, that we cannot do more than allude to them here; and, indeed, they are also so evident, that it would be almost superfluous to enter into much detail concerning them. Commerce. Of the British commerce, that branch which we enjoyed exclusively, namely, the commerce with our colonies, was long regarded as the most advantageous. Since the separation of the American States from Great Britain, however, the trade, the industry, and manufactures of the latter have greatly increased. New markets have been opened, the receipts from which are more certain and less tedious than they formerly were, and by supplying a great variety of markets, the skill and ingenuity of British artisans have taken a wider range. The productions of their labour have been adapted to the wants, not of rising colonies, but of nations the most wealthy and refined, in every part of the globe. Our commercial system, no longer resting on the artificial basis of speculation, has been rendered more solid as well as more liberal, and the recent great measures of free trade have proved of the utmost benefit to British commerce. No nation upon the face of the earth is, as regards its commerce, the equal of Great Britain. It is, indeed, on its commerce that its greatness is chiefly based; its ships visit all lands and all climes, carrying its productions thither and receiving in return their gold and their produce. One great cause of the extension of commerce is the application of machinery. in our manufactures. By this means Great Britain is enabled to supply the world with articles for domestic use which cannot readily be obtained elsewhere. "To see," writes a British tourist, in 1791, "barren hills and valleys laugh and sing under the influence of an auspicious trade, must give the benevolent heart the most agreeable |