manufacture of flour is an example of narration generalized used in explaining a process:

"After the wheat has been cleaned of what may be called field impurities, including cockle, it passes to graders, which separate the small, shrunken, or imperfect kernels from the plump and sound ones; thus enabling the miller to keep up his higher grades of flour by using only sound wheat, while the inferior quality may be kept separate and reduced to a lower grade flour. This grading is perhaps more generally practised in mills using soft wheat exclusively than in those which use mainly hard wheat, with only a sufficient mixture of soft to expedite its reduction.

The next operation is a radical one, consisting of the passing of the wheat through a machine, known as the scourer and smutter. Crease dirt, while hardly perceptible to the casual observer, is peculiarly abhorrent to the good miller, and must be taken out before pure white flour can be made."

It is in books on science that we most frequently find examples of the exposition of processes. Scientific exposition as well as scientific description does not properly belong to the study of literature as an art, because it aims merely at clearness of statement. Compare the description of a bird in a textbook on ornithology with Shelley's Skylark if you wish to understand the difference in method.

183. Expository Paragraphs to be Classified for Material. The material used to develop the fundamental thought in the following extracts should be classified by showing that it is repetition, definition, exemplification, analogy, classification, or narration generalized. The student should find and bring to class other paragraphs that contain these various kinds of material.

I.

Our brains are seventy-year clocks. The Angel of Life winds them up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of the Resurrection.

Tic-tac! tic-tac! go the wheels of thought; our will cannot stop them; they cannot stop themselves; sleep cannot still them; madness only makes them go faster; death alone can break into the case, and, seizing the ever-swinging pendulum, which we call the heart, silence at last the clicking of the terrible escapement we have carried so long beneath our wrinkled foreheads. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES,

The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table.

II.

The following conversation between a fisherman and his pupil is taken from Walton and Cotton's The Complete Angler:

Piscator: Well, scholar, you see what pains I have taken to recover the lost credit of the poor despised chub [a kind of fish]. And now I will give you some rules how to catch him.

Go to the same hole in which I caught my chub, where, in most hot days, you will find a dozen or twenty chevens floating near the top of the water. Get two or three grasshoppers as you go over the meadow, and get secretly behind the tree, and stand as free from motion as possible. Then put a grasshopper on your hook, and let your hook hang a quarter of a yard short of the water. But it is likely the chubs will sink down towards the bottom of the water, at the first shadow of your rod - for the chub is the fearfullest of fishes,— and will do so if but a bird flies over him and makes the least shadow on the water. But they will presently rise up to the top again and there lie soaring till some shadow affrights them again. I say, when they lie on the top of the water, look out the best chubwhich you, setting yourself in a fit place, may very easily see, - and move your rod as softly as a snail moves to that chub you intend to catch.

III.

To punish a man because he has committed a crime, or because he is believed, though unjustly, to have committed a crime, is not persecution. To punish a man because we infer from the nature of some doctrine which he holds, or from the conduct of other persons who hold the same doctrines with him, that he will commit a crime, is persecution, and is, in every case, foolish and wicked.

-THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, Essay on Hallam's Constitutional History.

IV.

The more we study the body and the mind, the more we find both to be governed, not by, but according to laws, such as we observe in the larger universe.— You think you know all about walking,-don't you, now? Well, how do you suppose your lower limbs are held to your body? They are sucked up by two cupping vessels ("cotyloid"-cuplike-cavities), and held there as long as you live, and longer. At any rate, you think you move them backward and forward at such a rate as your will determines, don't you? On the contrary, they swing just as any other pendulums swing, at a fixed rate determined by their length. You can alter

this by muscular power, as you can take hold of the pendulum of a clock and make it move faster or slower; but your ordinary gait is timed by the same mechanism. as the movements of the solar system.

184. The Next Step in the Study of Exposition. We have thus far studied the motives of Exposition and the different kinds of material which may be used in amplifying these motives. Our next step is to learn how to handle expository motives and material; that is, how to organize the material into paragraphs and the paragraphs into themes,

CHAPTER XIII.

THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

185. Coherence in the Expository Paragraph. In our study of the descriptive paragraph, we laid stress upon the two great principles of unity and emphasis. In our work on the expository paragraph we shall add to these another fundamental law of composition, that of coherence or the arranging of sentences in a paragraph so as to indicate their logical relation. In exposition this relating of one sentence to another is more of a problem than in narration and description. As statement is related to statement by coördinate conjunctions in the compound sentence, and by subordinate conjunctions in the complex sentence, so the sentences which make up an expository paragraph, though independent in form, must in thought stand to each other in either the coördinate or subordinate relation.

186. Unity and Emphasis in the Expository Paragraph. The law which our descriptive models should have impressed upon us in regard to the first, the last, and the intervening sentences in a paragraph, applies also to this new type of paragraph; that is, the first sentence should express a general truth or make a statement about either a class of objects, an abstract idea, or a general process, the sentences following should explain this statement, and the last sentence should summarize or give the reader a sense of completeness.

187. Types of the Expository Paragraph. From the point of view of coherence there are four types of the expository paragraph, represented by the models and diagrams in sections 188-194:

In Type I. (§ 188) the leading thoughts are coördinate. This type corresponds to the compound sentence.

In Type II. (§ 190) each of the leading thoughts is subordinate to the one immediately preceding. This type corresponds to the complex sentence.

In Type III. (§ 192) some of the leading thoughts are in coördinate and others in subordinate relation. This type corresponds to the compound-complex sentence. In Type IV. (§ 194) the paragraph consists of a single

sentence.

The student will find in his reading that there are other types of the expository paragraph besides the four enumerated here. We shall, however, confine our study to these simple forms because they are most easily understood and used.

The following sections provide examples of each of these types.

188. Type I.-COÖRDINATION IN THE PARAGRAPH. In the first type of the expository paragraph which we shall study, the main thoughts used to amplify the fundamental idea stand to each other in coördinate relation. Each is directly related to the first sentence, but not to the others. The following extract belongs to this type:

Men often remind me of pears in their way of coming to maturity. Some are ripe at twenty, like human Jargonelles, and must be made the most of, for their day is soon over. Some come into their perfect condition late, like the autumn kinds, and they last better