the days!" and "Yet how grand is the winter!" tell us that the season is winter. Here time is expressed by the direct quotation in the form of an exclamatory sentence. What kind of sentence was used in Example I.? "Looked on a landscape white" also indicates the season. Here, too, a whole sentence is used for the time element. "In the old country the twilight is longer" gives us the time of day and expresses the time element in a sentence.

Example IV. "One summer morning" gives the season and the time of day in the form of an adverbial objective, the words summer and morning being used instead of phrases or clauses.

Example V. "On St. John's eve" gives the month and day of the month and the time of day. Time is here expressed in a phrase.

Example VI. The time is implied, not directly expressed, in this example. We infer from the roistering wind and the blazing fireplace that it is autumn or winter.

Example VII. The month is given in the expression "The July sunshine."

Example VIII. "It was the height of haying-time" tells the season in a direct way. Is this method as effective as that used in VI.?

From a study of these examples of the time element we have learned the following facts:

1. That the time may be told indirectly.

I.

2. That it may be told directly also by the use of the adverbial objective, a phrase, a clause, à sentence.

3. That we may be given the century or age (see Example X.), the year, season, month, day, or hour.

SUGGESTION.-The elements of place, character. and occasion in Examples I. to X., section 9, may be studied in the same way.

12. Variety in Order. Note also, from the following study, the variety in the order in which the four situation elements are introduced in the situations quoted in section 9:

In Example I. the order is as follows:

a. The place is mentioned first, in the expression, "In his chamber."

b. Next, the character and the occasion, "Prayed the Monk in deep contrition."

c. Lastly, the time, "It was noonday by the dial."

Sometimes two of the elements are given together. See the mention of character and occasion together in b of the above analysis.

SUGGESTION.-The order in the other examples of the situation which have been given in section 9 may be determined. Which of the four elements is mentioned first, which next, and so on?

13. Varying the Order and Expression in Reproduction. In the exercises called for at the close of this section the student will be asked to rewrite certain situations in order that he may see how the elements of a particular situation may be expressed in many ways. A sample situation and a reproduction of it are given below to show how this variety may be secured. The reproduction is not necessarily an improvement on the original. It aims merely to be different.

The original situation: "It was market-day and over all the roads round Goderville the peasants and their wives were coming towards the town. The women walked with steps far shorter and quicker than the men."

The reproduction: Goderville was in high feather, for it was market day. The peasants might be seen trudging along the roads leading to the town, their baskets filled with vegetables and fruits. The shorter and quicker steps of the women made them appear more sprightly than the men, who strode through the dust with their wooden shoes.

SUGGESTION.-Prove that the same place, characters, etc., are mentioned in the original situation and the reproduction.

Exercises

I. Reproduce the last three examples of the situation in section 9. Determine first the order of the four elements in the original situation, and in your reproduction change both the original order and the mode of expressing the four w's. (See §§11 and 12.)

II. Bring to class several situations which you have found in books. Determine the four w's in each. Reproduce three of these situations, varying the order and taking care to present each of the four elements in a way unlike that of the original.

14. Variety in Sentence Structure. The law of variety is constantly violated by students in the structure of their sentences. They use with painful monotony, either the short, simple sentence, beginning almost invariably with the subject, or a series of simple statements connected by and, and so, or and then. These connectives unite the statements grammatically, but they do not indicate the logical relations of time, cause, concession, etc., which often exist between such statements. In order to gain greater variety in the sentence we must first learn to construct the longer complex sentence by sub

ordinating some thoughts to others so as to show their logical relations. We should use complex, compound, and simple sentences with equal ease in our writing.

Sentences should vary not only in grammatical structure, but in length. Neither the short nor the long sentence should be allowed to become tiresome by being used too frequently.

There is still a third way for securing variety in the sentence. When we put the subordinate elements first and do not complete the principal statement until the close of the sentence, we are using what is called the periodic sentence. When we reverse this order, completing the principal statement early in the sentence and bringing in the clauses toward the close, we are using the loose sentence. We should strive to use both the loose and the periodic sentence in our composition.

To sum up what has been said on the subject of variety in the sentence: The sentences in a paragraph or a theme should vary in length, and in grammatical and rhetorical structure.

Exercise

In each of the examples of the situation quoted in section 9, how many long sentences are there? How many short sentences? How many compound? How many simple? How many complex? How many loose sentences do you find? How many

periodic?

Do any of the examples of the situation violate the law of variety in regard to sentence length? to grammatical structure? to rhetorical structure?

CHAPTER II.

SENTENCE STUDIES

15. The Material Used for Sentence Study. In the following studies of the sentence, the situation will be used for most of the material so that the exercises may not be upon detached sentences, but upon sentences combined to make a situation paragraph, whose use in the theme we already understand. (See §§ 1 to 5.)

16. Outline of Sentence Study. The following is an outline of sentence study as treated in this chapter:

Sentence Study I. treats of the comma fault, which consists in writing several distinct and independent sentences as if they were one. Students sometimes omit all marks of punctuation between such sentences, or separate them by commas (hence the name of the error, comma fault). A sentence should, of course, close with a period, an interrogation point, or an exclamation point.

Sentence Study II. deals with a series of independent statements.

Sentence Study III. has to do with the reducing of independent to coördinate statements when the thoughts expressed are coördinate.

Sentence Study IV. shows how a coördinate statement may be reduced to a subordinate element in the sentence. Students often use the compound sentence when the logical relations of the statements in a