other circumstances they would hardly touch. Of this kind are field-mustard, Sinapis arvensis; charlock, Raphanus Raphanistrum; chickweed, Stellaria media; marsh marigold, Caltha palustris; cow-parsnip, Heracleum sphondylium; sorrel, Rumex acetosa; corn-marigold, Chrysanthemum segetum; and ox-eye, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum. Our indigenous plants have been greatly neglected, with respect to their capability of affording food for cattle, when cultivated. Every body knows the importance of red and white clover, black medick, and ryegrass, as subjects of artificial pastures; but are there not many other plants, that, by similar treatment, might prove equally advantageous ? Heracleum sphondylium, for example, nearly the largest of our native herbaceous species, might, by culture, be made to shoot up to the height of a hollyhock, and, of its bland and pleasant taste, any one may, in addition to the testimony of the Hebridian cows, satisfy himself by masticatory experiment.

Linnæus's account of the uses for which the Angelica archangelica, an allied plant, is employed by the Laplanders, applies in every respect to the Heracleum, which is used by the natives of some of the Hebrides in the same manner. He says it is held in great estimation in Lapland, the natives using it in place of fruit, of which they have none, with the exception of a few berries. The stem is stript of leaves, and the soft internal part, after the outer layer has been peeled off, is eaten raw like an apple or turnip. This kind of food, he says, was not disagreeable to him, for being slightly bitter, and at the same time aromatic, it formed an excellent seasoning to the fish, flesh and rein-deer milk which he commonly obtained, the natives making no use of salt.

Numerous plants occur in pasture grounds which are entirely rejected by cattle, and there are others, the eating of which is supposed to be injurious to them. Of the former kind are thistles, Cnicus lanceolatus, and arvensis; the bur-dock, Arctium Lappa; ragwort, Senecio Jacobæa and aquaticus; sea radish, Raphanus maritimus; meadow rue, Thalictrum medium ; mugwort, Artemisia vulgaris; together with all the ligneous. plants, as the Erica, Calluna, Empetrum nigrum, &c. Many of these plants might be extirpated from pasture grounds with

little difficulty at any season of the year, excepting spring. But the operation ought to be performed when they have shot up sufficiently to be easily extracted by the hand, and before they have formed their seeds. They might then be collected into heaps, and burnt, or deposited in the dunghil. There can be no doubt, that, by due attention to the extirpation of useless and noxious species, pasturages might be greatly improved in quality. The species which are supposed to be injurious to cattle, are those possessed of acrid or narcotic qualities. Of the former may be mentioned the Ranunculus acris, Flammula and sceleratus, which, probably, from their well-known acrid and epispastic qualities, are conceived to give rise to diseases of the intestinal canal. The tender herbage of spring is also frequently productive of diarrhoea in black cattle and sheep, which may be reduced to a dangerous state of weakness by too sudden a transition from the dry winter pasturage to one consisting entirely of the soft shoots of the richer and more nutritious plants. The abundant herbage of autumn, softened by the rains, and perhaps undergoing a partial decomposition, is also supposed to be a cause of braxy. It is certain, at least, that the removal of lambs from rich pasturage of this kind to moorland, operates beneficially upon them, when that epidemic prevails.

The value of a given extent of pasture-ground as a farm, for the rearing of cattle, depends no doubt principally upon the richness of the vegetation; but it also, in no small degree, depends upon a variety in the vegetation, and upon the degree of declination of the ground, and the shelter afforded by hills. Certain plants also, which are useless as food, are worthy of being preserved as affording shelter; of which kind are, in certain circumstances, the common heath, the broom and the brake. But such plants as rose-shrubs, brambles, gorse and the sloe, although they may afford shelter, ought to be extirpated, on account of their inclination to spread, the difficulty of restraining them within the desired bounds, and the injury which they inflict upon the fleeces.

Very little seems to have been done in this country for the improvement of natural pasturages; yet many varieties might be rendered greatly more productive by judicious management.

For example, how many sandy spots, in an incipient state of rebellion, might be effectually secured by the application of a few turfs or spadefuls of earth? How many bogs, totally unproductive of useful herbs, and dangerous to cattle, might be dried and rendered secure by a very slight ditch or drain? How many tracts of furze, rank heath or fern, might be cleared by the ser vants of an extensive farm, at periods of comparative cessation from labour, or of idleness? But, upon this subject, I am unable at present to enter. I cannot, however, avoid expressing regret, that the incumbents upon the numerous extensive grazing farms of the Highlands in particular, should in hardly any case direct their attention towards the improvement of their farms, conceiving all amelioration of this kind to find its proper object exclusively in the management of arable land. It would, indeed, be absurd to expect, that people should enter upon the task of shelving down the rugged slopes of mountains, or of filling up morasses; but, short of this, there is abundant occupation for hours of idleness, in the many minor operations to which a judicious management might give rise.

ESSAYS ON THE ORIGIN AND NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC

ANIMALS. By JAMES WILSON, Esq. F. R. S. E. M. W. S. &c.

ESSAY III.

ON THE ORIGIN AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DOMESTIC OX,

I

AND ITS ALLIED SPECIES.

PROPOSE, in this paper, to give a short account of the different species of cattle, which the skill and perseverance of man has enabled him to subdue in the various regions of the earth,and to point out the probable source of those varieties which the European nations cultivate to such perfection, and with so many beneficial results. If the horse is the noblest and most majestic. of man's conquests, and the dog the most interesting and companionable, the bull and cow yield not the palm of usefulness to either of their more spirited or sagacious rivals. Milk, but

ter, cheese, tallow, and beef, are very necessary ingredients in the comforts and general economy of human life, to make no mention of leather and horn spoons.

The origin of our different breeds of domestic cattle, is a matter not easily explained. The soil and climate of a certain district seem more favourable for the production and continuance of one breed rather than another, and many of our local varieties have no doubt originated from such peculiarities of soil and climate, aided by the intelligence and activity of those whose interest it became to encourage and improve the most advantageous variety. Certain special qualities are, from local or accidental circumstances, more valuable in one country or even county than another; and these qualities are developed or decreased, in proportion to the estimation in which they are held. Colour is too superficial a character to have any (or much) influence on the natural or more substantial qualities of an animal-but it is easy to conceive, that, when a breeder becomes possessed of a breed of cattle remarkable for combining the best and most desirable qualities, he will naturally attach some importance even to colour, though not an influential attribute, and that, other circumstances being the same, he will prefer to continue the breed from those which resemble the original and esteemed stock in colour, as well as in size, form, and proportions. It is probably in this way that the characteristic breed of each district is so often distinguished by a peculiar colour, from that even of a neighbouring province. It would, indeed, be impossible to account for it otherwise, for we cannot conceive that the different kinds of our domestic cattle sprung originally from different species of wild animals.

All animals are created with certain internal characters or dispositions, and with certain external characters or aspects, and by whatever means they were enabled to discover, or were originally placed in those situations most adapted to the development and continuance of their respective or specific natures, it is evident, from the uniformity which prevails in the features of all wild animals of the same species, that local circumstances are not efficient in the production of natural changes; in other words, that to preserve the simplicity of nature species have been originally placed only in those situations which produce or

preserve a uniformity in the aspect of individuals, and an adherence to the characters of the Adama-the beautiful or first created of each kind. *

The more an animal is subjected to a mode of life different from that adapted to its original nature, the more will its characters become altered, and removed from those of its primitive state. The longer the period during which it has been subjected to the dominion of man, and the more constrained and artificial the conditions to which that subjection has rendered it amenable, the more striking will be the variation in its external aspect and colouring, and the greater its departure from the form and features of its primitive type. If we consider for a moment the infinite variety of circumstances under which our domestic animals are born and bred, and the wide differences which all these circumstances present, when compared with those under which a wild animal, even of the same species, would naturally be produced, we shall scarcely wonder either at the dissimilarities exhibited by the domestic breeds themselves, or their disagreement with the characters of any unreclaimed species.

The changes in the nature and instinct of animals, produced by their subservience to the will of the human race, is truly remarkable. "The empire which man has over animals," says Buffon," is an empire which revolution cannot overthrow; it is the empire of the spirit over matter; a right of nature, a power founded on unalterable laws, a gift of God, by which man may at all times discern the excellence of his being, for he does not rule them because he is himself the most perfect, the strongest, or the most dexterous of animals. If he held only the first rank of the same order, the others would unite to dispute his empire; but it is from the superiority of his nature that man reigns and commands: he thinks, and for this reason is master over beings that are incapable of thinking. He reigns over material bodies, because they can only oppose to his will a sullen resistance, or an inflexible stupidity, which he can always

Ludolphus (Hist. Ethiop.) traces the name of Adam to the Ethiopian root adama, pleasant or beautiful. According to Bryant, ad and ada signify first or earliest.