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Originally the words despot and tyrant meant simply a single ruler. But such is the sense at present conveyed by these words, that any government so administered as to oppress the people, is said to be despotic or tyrannical.

§ 3. Another form of government is a democracy, which means a government by the people. The word democracy is from the Greek words, demos, the people, and kratos, power, and signifies the people exercising the power to govern. In a government purely democratic, the great body of freemen meet in one assembly to make the laws and to transact the public business. In ancient Greece and Rome there were governments of this kind. These can exist only in small territories. All the citizens of a large community could not meet in a single assembly and do business.

§ 4. It will be seen that a monarchy and a democracy are directly opposite to each other. In the former, the power to govern is in the hands of one man; in the latter it is exercised by the people. In the one, the people are governed by another; in the other, they govern themselves. The former, in which the will of one man is law, is called an absolute or arbitrary government; the latter, in which the people make their own laws, is called a free government.

§ 5. There is a form of government which partakes of the nature of both a monarchical and a free government, and is called a mixed government. It is also called a limited monarchy, because the monarch is himself restrained by laws, and cannot make laws alone. The government of Great Britain is one of this description. The chief magistrate, the king, gets his power as kings usually do, by right of birth; that is, he inherits it from his ancestors as a son becomes heir to the property of his father, at whose death his property comes to the child by right of birth. The eldest son is heir to the crown. If there is no son, it falls to some near relation.

§ 6. The laws in Great Britain are framed by parliament, and submitted to the king for his approval. If he approves them, they become laws, otherwise they do not. Parliament is composed of two legislative assemblies, the house of lords, and the house of commons. The lords are men of high rank, who get their office by birth, or from the king.

They are also called nobles. The house of commons is composed of men elected by the people. These three branches of the government, the king, the house of lords, and the house of commons, must all agree to a measure before it is a law. The king, however, seldom withholds his assent from laws passed by both houses of parliament.

§ 7. Governments called aristocracies have also existed; but no government properly called an aristocracy is believed to exist at the present time. The word is applied to a government which is in the hands of a few persons of rank and wealth. The aristocratic principle however, is preserved in the British house of lords.

§ 8. But the form of government which prevails in this country is different from all those which have been described. It is a republican government. A republic is a government in which the people enjoy common rights and privileges. Hence the name of commonwealth is sometimes applied to a republic; as a thing is said to be common when it is enjoyed by persons in general. Sometimes this name is given to a state of this Union; as, "the commonwealth of Massachusetts;" "the commonwealth of Pennsylvania." Hence also the word community, which signifies people living under the same laws and enjoying common privileges. Every state in the Union is a republic.

§ 9. In a republic, the political power is with the people; therefore the government is free. Our government is sometimes called a democracy; and perhaps the words republic and democracy had formerly the same meaning. But our government is materially different from such a democracy as has been described. In a republic like ours, the people do not all assemble in a body to make laws as in a pure democracy. The laws are made by a small number of men called representatives, who are chosen by the people for that purpose.

$10. The government of this country is therefore a representative government, or a representative republic. A representative is a person chosen or employed by others to make known their wishes and to transact business for them. A representative is therefore an agent. The word agent, however, more frequently denotes a person intrusted with the

business of private individuals; by representative is generally understood one who is chosen to assist in enacting the laws.

§ 11. Although most of the powers of government in this country are exercised by the agents and representatives of the people, instead of being exercised by the great body of the people in person, as in a simple democracy, both governments are equally free, because, in both, all power, though differently exercised, originally resides in and comes from the people, and both are such as the people have chosen for themselves.

EXERCISES.

§ 1. By what are the governments of different countries distinguished from each other?

§ 2. Describe the nature of a monarchy. Of despotism, or tyranny.

§3. What is a democracy? Define the word democracy. Would a democracy be practicable in this country? Why not?

§ 4. Why is a monarchy called an absolute or arbitrary government? Why is democracy called a free government? § 5. What is the government of Great Britain called? § 6. By whom are the laws in that country enacted? How is the parliament constituted?

7. Describe an aristocracy.

8. What is the government of this country? Define republic-commonwealth-community.

9. In what does our country differ from a simple democracy?

§ 10. Define representative.

11. In what respect are our republic and a democracy alike? Mention some other governments that are republican?

CHAPTER IV.

Of the Nature of a Constitution.

- § 1. THE form of government in the United States is expressed in a written instrument, called a constitution. A constitution is a form of rules by which the members of a society agree to be governed. Every society or association, commonly so called, has a constitution. The persons forming the association, draft a set of rules setting forth its objects, and declaring what officers it shall have, the powers and duties of each, and the manner of conducting its operations. So the rules adopted by the members of the civil society, as a state or nation, are called the constitution. They are in the nature of articles of agreement, by which the people mutually agree to be governed.

§ 2. A constitution is a kind of law; not such a law, however, as are the laws made by the people's representatives It is a law drafted by men chosen by the people for that pur. pose, and adopted by the people themselves. It describes the nature and form of the government, declares what officers are to be elected, and prescribes their respective powers and duties. It is sometimes called the fundamental law, being the foundation of all other laws, which must agree with this fundamental law. Hence it is also called a frame of government, and may be compared to the frame of a building. As the frame fixes the form and dimensions of the building, and as every piece of timber or plank required to finish it must be fitted to the frame, so every law that is made, and every other act performed in the administration of the government, must conform to the constitution.

§ 3. The constitution is also called the political law, because it is the law of the political body, or body politic. By the term body politic is meant the people of the state incorporated into one body for purposes of government. Being a law ordained by act of the people in their political capacity, a constitution is properly the political law, as distinguished from the laws made from time to time by the legislature, which are called, by way of distinction, the civil or

municipal laws. Hence it appears, that though a constitution is a law, not every law is a constitution.

§4. It appears also, that the first and highest act of a free people, is the choice of a constitution or form of government for themselves. Hence, in no country do the people enjoy greater political privileges than in the United States. In most governments there is either no constitution at all, or none that is established by the free choice of the people. The people of Great Britain enjoy a good degree of civil liberty, and we hear of the British constitution; but it is not a written instrument like ours, adopted by the popular vote. Not having such a constitution to restrain their rulers, the people are liable to suffer, and often do suffer, from the enactment of unjust laws.

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§ 5. The object of a constitution is two-fold. In the first place, it is intended to protect the people against the evils of a bad use of power by those who are intrusted with the administration of the government. It prescribes the powers and duties of the principal public officers, so that it may be known if they transcend their powers; and it guaranties to the people the right of displacing, at stated periods, those who abuse their power, and of electing others in their stead.

§ 6. But while a constitution is designed to restrict the powers of those who administer the government, it is deemed equally necessary for the security of public liberty to place some restraints upon the people. The framers of the constitution, believing an unrestrained democracy to be no better than a monarchy, have provided safeguards against the abuse of liberty as well as against the abuse of power; and the people, by adopting the constitution, have consented to these restraints. Yet, as all political power is inherent in the people, they may alter their constitution, increasing or lessening these restraints at pleasure; but they are bound by its provisions, whatever they may be: nor can they alter it, except in such manner as the constitution itself prescribes.

EXERCISES.

1. What is a constitution? What is its general nature? 2. By whom is a constitution drawn up and adopted?

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