politics that the other parties maintain scarcely more than a nominal organization. Such an organization may play a part in national politics, but is negligible in connection with the government of the state. The primary of the dominant party practically takes the place of the official general election, and the rules for the conduct of the primary are of greater political importance than the ostensible election law. In several northern states also the dominant party holds a very strong position. There the traditional convention system has been retained by the major parties, at least for the selection of candidates for offices to be filled by the voters of the state at large, in all states where the direct primary has not been established by law. In these states there is still a convention for each electoral district, unless the direct primary, as is the case in a few states, is specially established for certain localities. Under the traditional convention system the members of the various party committees (as well as the candidates for public office) are usually chosen by the conventions. The influence of the rank and file upon the nomination of most of the candidates and the choice of most of the party managers may at best be very indirect and remote.

Party organization in the states which still retain the traditional convention system is generally highly centralized. The supreme legislative authority is the state convention, and the supreme executive is the state central, or executive, committee. The former makes the rules for the conduct of primaries and the procedure of local conventions and committees, so far as it chooses, and the state committee supervises their enforcement. Any dispute as to the regularity of the proceedings in any primary or convention or party committee may therefore be appealed to the state committee and finally to the state convention. But if the state committee prepares the temporary roll of delegates to the state convention and designates its temporary officers, the balance of power is likely to repose in its hands. In short, under the traditional convention system that caucus or primary or convention, and hence that nomination of candidates and choice of party committeemen, is regular which is recognized by the next higher committee in the organization of the party. In case of a legal controversy over a nomination and the use of the party name on the ballot, the decisions of the highest committee,

The permanent officers of the party organizations, that is, the members of the various party committees, are technically the officers of voluntary associations.1 They receive no regular compensation for the performance of their important duties, nor is any regular revenue provided by means of which they may defray the expense of maintaining the organization and conducting campaigns. They are generally chosen for fixed terms of two or four years, though local party officers in a few states and all party officers in Massachusetts are chosen annually, and, when elected in official primaries, may receive their credentials from the public election officers. Yet they are not themselves public officers, and cannot be removed from office either by impeachment or by other direct legislative or administrative action. Since they are chosen for fixed terms, they cannot be removed by any partisan body unless the primary law or the party constitution expressly so provides. Frequently there is no provision for the removal of party committeemen before the expiration of their terms. Where there is such provision, it makes the tenure of the local committeemen dependent upon the good will of the majority of the central committee, thus causing a degree of centralization in the party organization incompatible with the maintenance of local autonomy in party government. In the absence of any effective provision for the removal of party committeemen the control of the party organization between campaigns lies entirely in their hands. Whether or not it also lies entirely in their hands at all times depends upon the nature of the test of party affiliation, the method of nominating candidates, and the manner of conducting primaries and conventions.

The organization of major parties not subject to regulation by law is less uniform than that of those whose organization is regulated by law. In several of the southern states the dominant party has voluntarily adopted the direct primary system of making nominations and provided all the machinery for the conduct of primary elections. In such states the party constitution and rules of procedure are almost as comprehensive as are the election laws themselves in the states where the direct primary is established by law. In such a state as South Carolina, for example, the dominant party so completely dominates local 1 F. J. Goodnow, Administrative Law of the United States, pp. 243-253.

politics that the other parties maintain scarcely more than a nominal organization. Such an organization may play a part in national politics, but is negligible in connection with the government of the state. The primary of the dominant party practically takes the place of the official general election, and the rules for the conduct of the primary are of greater political importance than the ostensible election law. In several northern states also the dominant party holds a very strong position. There the traditional convention system has been retained by the major parties, at least for the selection of candidates for offices to be filled by the voters of the state at large, in all states where the direct primary has not been established by law. In these states there is still a convention for each electoral district, unless the direct primary, as is the case in a few states, is specially established for certain localities. Under the traditional convention system the members of the various party committees (as well as the candidates for public office) are usually chosen by the conventions. The influence of the rank and file upon the nomination of most of the candidates and the choice of most of the party managers may at best be very indirect and remote.

Party organization in the states which still retain the traditional convention system is generally highly centralized. The supreme legislative authority is the state convention, and the supreme executive is the state central, or executive, committee. The former makes the rules for the conduct of primaries and the procedure of local conventions and committees, so far as it chooses, and the state committee supervises their enforcement. Any dispute as to the regularity of the proceedings in any primary or convention or party committee may therefore be appealed to the state committee and finally to the state convention. But if the state committee prepares the temporary roll of delegates to the state convention and designates its temporary officers, the balance of power is likely to repose in its hands. In short, under the traditional convention system that caucus or primary or convention, and hence that nomination of candidates and choice of party committeemen, is regular which is recognized by the next higher committee in the organization of the party. In case of a legal controversy over a nomination and the use of the party name on the ballot, the decisions of the highest committee,

that is, of the state central or executive committee, will generally be recognized by the courts as final.1 The extent of the control of the party organization by the permanent committeemen, as in the case of parties whose organization is regulated by law, depends upon the nature of the test of party affiliation and the character of the nominating procedure.

ORGANIZATION OF SOCIALIST PARTY

The organization of the minor parties, with one exception, is less formal and less elaborate than that of the major parties and requires no special consideration. The exception is the Socialist party.

The Socialist party organization is substantially the same in all the states and differs in several important respects from that of the other parties. In the first place, the state convention has no final power to adopt a constitution and rules of procedure, but may only propose a constitution and rules or amendments thereto for final adoption by the rank and file of the party, voting directly at a party referendum, as it is called. The platform, also, may only be adopted provisionally by the state convention, subject to final ratification by the members of the party. Secondly, the convention may nominate candidates for public office, but the nominations are subject to ratification by the membership. Thirdly, the members of the principal party committees are elected directly by the members of the party, and may be recalled at any time by a majority of those voting on the question when submitted to the members. The question of recall must be submitted when ordered by the requisite number of local associations. Fourthly, the local associations may initiate amendments to the constitution and rules and platform, and a majority of the members throughout the state voting thereon can adopt them. Thus, though the Socialist party organization is as highly centralized as that of any other party, the acts of those in authority are subject to control by the majority of the members, or at least are supposed to be subject to such control, through the operation of the initiative, referendum, and recall. The Socialists have not only adopted a radical redivision of

1 F. J. Goodnow, op. cit.

powers between the representative organs of party government and the rank and file, they have also made some fundamental changes in the character of party administration. The most important officer in the Socialist party organization is not the chairman of the state committee, as in other parties, but the state secretary. This officer, though usually elected directly by the membership, is regarded as an employee rather than as a leader of the party, and is expected to devote all his time to its service. Instead of being left to secure his reward for party service by obtaining election or appointment to public office or otherwise, as in other parties, he is paid a fixed salary. The necessary funds for salaries and other expenses of organization are raised by the sale of stamps to the members. These stamps are furnished each month by the national secretary to the state secretaries, one for each member of the party in good standing within the state, at the rate of five cents apiece. The state secretary retails them to the secretaries of the party locals at ten cents apiece. The local secretaries dispose of them to members at twenty-five cents each, or whatever they will fetch. Thus the national, state, and local organizations are expected to secure a stable and regular revenue and the members of the party to feel a personal interest in the conduct of party affairs between as well as during the campaigns. The national secretary and several of the state secretaries publish weekly bulletins in which the receipt and expenditure of the party funds is accounted for and the conduct of party affairs in general duly recorded. The Socialist party organization is thus more complete than that of any other party, for no other party makes provision for the regular employment of paid officials and the regular collection of membership dues. On paper it is more democratic than that of any other party. Whether it is so in fact, and whether it is as efficient as democratic, are questions to which only experience can afford an answer.

TEST OF PARTY AFFILIATION

The test of party membership before the legal recognition of the political party was generally left to the discretion of the official party committees. This system still obtains in a few states.