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what swollen; the nose hooked somewhat after the Jewish type. Both intellectually and morally the Papuans have attained a fair standard, and display considerable artistic and inventive power. Complete nudity is rare, both men and women having usually some sort of covering round the loins. They practise agriculture to some extent, having fenced fields and gardens. Among their religious ideas is included belief in a future state. The greatest blot on their character is the practice of cannibalism. As regards civilization the Fijians are the most advanced.

ETHNOLOGY is a branch of the wider science of anthropology. It is sometimes used as synonymous with ethnography, but the latter properly speaking has a more limited scope, dealing mainly with the external features by which the various races of men are distinguished, while ethnology takes note both of the physical characteristics of the races of man, and also of their intellectual and moral peculiarities, their manners and customs, the peculiar features of their languages, their political or social organization, their origin, relationship and distribution, &c. In classifying the races of man the chief physical characters that have to be observed are the shape of the skull and form of the features, the proportions of the limbs, the colour of the skin, and the colour and nature of the hair. As these characters exhibit various gradations, and may be more or less pronounced, it is not always easy to draw a strict limit between two races, and various classifications of mankind have been proposed. The classification here followed is that given by Oscar Peschel, the descriptions also being mainly taken from his work on the Races of Man. The most important types will be found illustrated in the accompanying plates.

III. THE MONGOLOID NATIONS.

I. THE AUSTRALIANS.

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These comprise the inhabitants of the continent of Australia, of the islands on the coast, and of Tasmania-the latter now extinct. The skull of this race is of the dolichocephalic type, the jaws being also prognathous or protruded. The nose is narrow at the root, widening greatly below. The mouth is wide and unshapely. The body is thickly covered with hair; the hair is black, elliptical in section, that on the head being frizzly, and standing out so as to form a shaggy

The colour of the skin is dark as a rule, sometimes black, though a light copper red also occurs. The Australians on the whole are in a very rude and degraded condition. Agriculture in any form is unknown among them; they have no permanent dwellings, but merely hastily constructed temporary shelters; their implements and weapons are few and inartistic, among the latter being the very remarkable boomerang; clothes they hardly wear, except a kind of cloak as a protection against bad weather; their food consists of roots, fruits, fish, and the produce of the chase, and they do not despise such eatables as caterpillars, lizards, ants, and worms. As a man must not marry a woman of the same tribe the cus. tom of wife-stealing is prevalent. Their language is much more complicated than that of many highly civilized races, being very rich in inflexions.

To this race belong the Polynesian and Asiatic Malays, the people of South-eastern and Eastern Asia, the Tibetese, some of the Himalayan tribes, all the Northern Asiatics, with their kinsmen in Northern Europe, and lastly the aboriginal population of America. The common characteristics of this widely spread race are: long straight hair, circular in section; almost complete absence of beard and body hair; skin dark-coloured, varying from leather-yellow to deep brown, sometimes inclining to red; prominent cheek-bones, and eyes in general set obliquely. The various members of the Mongoloid race may be classed under the following subdivisions.

1. The Malay race, comprising the Asiatic Malays and the Polynesian or Pacific Malays. The former include, besides the Malays of the peninsula of Malacca, of Sumatra, the Sunda Islands, Java, &c., also the Dyaks of Borneo, the Battas of Sumatra, the Tagals and Bisayas of the Philippines, the Macassars and Bugis of Celebes, and lastly the inhabitants of Madagascar. The Polynesians include the New Zealanders, the natives of the Sandwich Islands, and those of the Marquesas, the Samoan group, the Friendly Islands, &c. No race belonging to the Malay stock has a black skin, that of the Asiatic Malays is of a dirty yellow hue; among the latter obliquity of the eyes is common. The Asiatic Malays are said to be taciturn, cruel, and revengeful, but dignified and polished in manners. They have long since adopted Islamism. As regards natural abilities Wallace rates the Malays below the Papuans.

2. Southern Asiatics with monosyllabic languages. This group comprises the Chinese, Indo-Chinese (Burmese, Siamese, Anamese, &c.), Tibetese, &c. They have all straight black hair, little beard or body hair, usually a yellow skin and oblique eyes. As is well known, a great portion of this family have attained a high degree of civilization, and are highly distinguished for inventiveness.

3. Coreans and Japanese.—These nations might be classed with the previous group, yet they display some well-marked peculiarities, and their languages are considerably different in structure. The Japanese received their civilization from the Chinese, but have made many advances themselves; and, very different from the Chinese, they have shown themselves ready to adopt what is valuable in European civilization,

4. Northern Mongoloids of the Old World.These comprise the Tungus, true Mongols, Turks, Finns, and Samoieds, all much resembling the Chinese and Indo-Chinese group in physical characters, but living generally by hunting, fishing, and cattle-breeding. To the Tungus belong the Manchoos, who conquered China and established a dynasty there. The

II. THE PAPUANS.

This race, which is the one most closely allied to the Australians, occupies New Guinea, the Pelew Islands, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, New Hebrides, the Fiji Islands, &c., there being in some of those islands also an intermixture of Polynesians. The most distinctive mark of this race is their peculiarly flattened, abundant, and long hair, growing in tufts, and forming a prominent spread. ing crown round the head, sticking out as much as eight inches. The skin is always dark, being almost black in New Caledonia, brown or chocolate colour in New Guinea, blueblack in Fiji. The skull is high and narrow (dolicho

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Among the Turks are classed Uigurs, Usbecks, Osmanlis, Turcomans, Yakuts, Nogaians, Kirghis, &c. The Osmanlis are the Turks of European Turkey. The Finns comprise, besides the true Finns and the Lapps of Northern Europe, the Magyars or Hungarians, and the Bulgarians. The Samoieds are nearly allied to the Finns.

5. Northern Nations of doubtful position. The Yenisei Ostiaks, the Ainos of Yesso, the inhabitants of Saghalien, &c. The Yenisei Ostiaks form a small tribe on the Upper Yenisei, and are quite distinct from the Ostiaks on the Ob. The Ainos are the oldest inhabitants of the Japanese islands. They are remarkable for their general hairiness, especially in the midst of smooth-skinned races, though they do not exceed Europeans in this respect.

6. The Behring's Nations. These are North Asiatic and American tribes, which for the most part inhabit the shores of Behring's Straits, or have migrated from that region. The Esquimaux, or Eskimo, are the most important. They have oblique eyes, and broad, flat faces, and are of rather a low stature; their intelligence is decidedly good.

7. The American Aborigines.-There can be little doubt that the original inhabitants of America crossed over from Asia, and the Mongol race is the only one with which they can be allied. Mongolian features are clearly marked among the natives of various parts of America, although generally the nose is more prominent and the face less flat. The colour varies, a reddish copper colour being very prevalent. The great bulk of the American aborigines may be classed as hunting tribes. In North America they are now sadly diminished in numbers; among them we may mention the Sioux (to which belong the Assineboins) and the Apaches. The Caribs live in Central America, and in the north of S. America. The Guarani (Gourani) are scattered over a great part of South America. At the time of the Spanish conquest American civilization had reached a high pitch in Mexico and Peru.

ebony black to dark brown, copper red, olive, or yellow. In some tribes the nose is straight, in others hooked, though often broad and flat. The hair of the head is generally short, elliptic in section, and much crimped; that on the body is not plentiful; whiskers are comparatively rare. The negroes may be divided into the Bantu negroes and the Soudan negroes, these divisions being based on differences in language. Among the first, who occupy a great part of S. Africa, the best known are the Suaheli in the Zanzibar region, the Kafirs of the southeast, and the Bechuanas farther inland. The Kafirs are well known as a brave, warlike, and intelligent race; they practise cattle-breeding and cultivate the soil to a small extent. It is in the Soudan region that the most typical members of the negro race are found. The Mandingoes cultivate the soil and carry on an active commerce; they have public schools, and the majority of them can read. They are Mohammedans. The Bambarras are allied to the Mandingoes, but as yet have hardly emerged from barbarism. The Yoloffs, tall and wellmade, with regular features, are among the finest of the negro races. The Ashantees are intelligent, skilled in making cotton cloths, sword-blades, and other articles, cruel and bloodthirsty. These Soudan races are black, with crisp woolly hair.

VII. THE MEDITERRANEAN NATIONS.

IV. THE DRAVIDIANS OR ABORIGINES OF INDIA.

These tribes have the skin generally very dark, frequently quite black; their hair is long and black, not straight but crimped or curly; the hair of beard and body grows profusely; the lips are thick and fleshy, somewhat like those of the negroes, but the jaws are never prominent. The Dravidians comprise the Tamuls, Telugus, Gonds, Santals or Sonthals, &c.

V. THE HOTTENTOTS AND BUSHMEN.

These are tribes of little importance inhabiting South Africa. They have the hair tufted and matted, the beard scanty, the body almost hairless; the jaws are moderately prominent; the cheeks project laterally; the lips are full, but not so much so as with the negroes; the nasal bones project little at the root of the nose, which is of the snub shape; the opening of the eyes is narrow but not oblique. They are slimly built, and the Bushmen in particular low in stature. Their colour is yellowish or yellowish brown. The language of the two peoples, different otherwise, is characterized by various peculiar clicking sounds, produced by applying the tongue to the teeth. They have always been engaged in cattle-breeding; were acquainted with the smelting of iron and working in metal before the advent of Europeans; wore sandals, leathern aprons, and cloaks; and for hunting carried bows with poisoned arrows. They are by no means devoid of intelligence, but their social development has been probably prevented by the dearth of water in South Africa.

These include all Europeans who are not Mongoloids, the North Africans, all Western Asiatics, and the Hindoos. Among them are the highest members of the human race. The northern nations have the skin quite fair; the southern have it darker; in North Africa and Eastern Asia it becomes yellow, red, or brown. The nose has always a high bridge; prognathism and prominence of the jaws and cheek-bones are rare; the lips are never intumescent, and in no other race are refined and noble features so frequent.

1. The Hamites.—This family occupies the whole of North Africa north of the Soudan and of East Africa to the equator. The Berbers are spread over a great part of this area, but in certain parts there has been a considerable intermixture of Arabs and other races. To this race belonged the ancient Egyptians, the modern representatives of whom are the Copts of Egypt and the Nubians. The Gallas live in the Abyssinian region. Their hair is long and curly; their features regular and agreeable, often European in cast; their skin dark. They are a warlike, manly, and moral people. The Hamites were the first of the Mediterranean races to attain to a high state of civilization, their early history and achievements in this direction being made known to us from the ancient monuments of Egypt.

2. The Semites. These comprise the Jews, Arabs, and Abyssinians, and the ancient Canaanites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Phænicians. They are more bearded than the Hamites, have high and generally aquiline noses, and wellmarked eyebrows; skin varying from a rather dark shade to a deep brown. This race early attained a high pitch of civilization, and to them the nations of the West are deeply in. debted.

3. The Indo-European or Aryan family. This family is to us of paramount importance, as being that to which we ourselves belong. It has been divided from a remote period into two branches, a European and an Asiatic. The European comprises the Germanic or Teutonic nations (English, Germans, Dutch, Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, &c.), the Romance nations (French, Italians, Spaviards, Portuguese), the Slavonians (Russians, Bohemians, Servians, &c.), the Greeks, and lastly the Celts, now confined to Brittany, Wales, the Scotch Highlands, and Ireland. The Asiatic comprises the Hindoos, the Afghans, the Beloochs, the Persians, Armenians, and Kurds. The Indo-Europeans have the physical characteristics of the Mediterranean race in the fullest purity, while among the inhabitants of Europe the remarkable peculiarities of fair hair and blue eyes are frequent. The New World is now largely occupied by European Aryans, and probably the aboriginal races will in time entirely disappear. Among the Greeks, ancient and modern, the highest

VI. THE NEGROES.

The negroes inhabit Africa from the southern margin of the Sahara to the territory of the Hottentots and Bushmen, and from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. The negro races display great variety in external characteristics, and what is popularly considered the typical negro is rarely met with.

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ruddy and dark complexions, with golden, auburn, and dark hair, blue and dark eyes. The Spaniards, Italians, and natives of the south of Europe generally, have dark complexions, eyes, and hair, with frames less robust than the members of the Teutonic stock. The Germans were anciently described as tall, robust, with fair complexion, light or red hair, and blue eyes, and to some extent this description still holds good of the Germanic peoples. The physical characters of the Slavonians present little that is peculiar. The Russians, especially in the north, are fair, with light brown, flaxen, or red hair. The Persians, among Asiatic Aryans, are well-known as a remarkably handsome people, with

regular features, long oval faces, and large black eyes. The Mahrattas of Central India have proved themselves a warlike and vigorous race. Physically, they are said to be undersized, and not well formed.

4. Europeans of doubtful position. - These include the Basques of the north-east of Spain and south-west of France and various tribes in the Caucasus. They are only set apart on account of their languages; in physical characters they undoubtedly belong to the Mediterranean race. The Basques are probably the oldest inhabitants of Europe. Among the races of the Caucasus may be mentioned the Georgians and Mingrelians.

FISHES.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF TERMS USED IN ICHTHYOLOGY.

Fishes form the lowest of the five classes into which the great sub-kingdom VERTEBRATA is divided. They may be shortly described as vertebrate animals living in water and respiring the air therein contained by means of gills or branchiæ; having cold, red blood, and a heart consisting of one auricle and one ventricle; and having those organs which take the form of limbs in the higher vertebrata represented by fins. Their bodies are generally covered with scales overlapping each other like the slates on a roof, and their usual form (though with much diversity) is lengthened, compressed laterally, and tapering towards both extremities.

The scales of fishes assume various forms, which have been classed under the four types of cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid, and placoid. Cycloid scales are of a rounded form, and are those met with in the most familiar fishes. Ctenoid scales, like those of the perch, have spinous projections from their posterior margin. Ganoid scales are in the form of thick bony plates covered with a superficial layer of enamel. Placoid scales form detached masses of various forms often provided with spines. (See fig. 32.) In most fishes may be seen what is called the 'lateral line.' This consists of a row of scales extending along the side of the fish from head to tail, each pierced in the centre and communicating with a longitudinal canal. The purpose of this structure is not yet known for certain.

The skeleton varies greatly in character- from the lancelet that can hardly be said to possess a skeleton, to the welldeveloped osseous framework of the perch and many other fishes. Most fishes, however, can be classed as having either a cartilaginous or a bony skeleton. The vertebræ are amphicælous or biconcave, that is cup-shaped at either end; they vary in number from 17 to more than 200. (Figs. 28 and 29.)

The gills of fishes in their most common form consist of a great number of slender lamellæ, disposed like the teeth of a comb in parallel rows, and attached to bony arches on each side of the neck. They are richly supplied with blood-vessels, by means of which the blood that is driven to them by the heart, after circulating through the body, is purified through combination with the oxygen contained in the water, the water being constantly taken in at the mouth and made to pass over the gills. The blood after being aerated in the gills is driven again through the body without first returning to the heart.

The fins are called by different names according to their position. The pectoral fins, situated a little behind the head, correspond to the fore limbs of other vertebrata; the ventral fins, situated on the belly in front of the anal opening, correspond to the hind limbs; and there may be besides these, dorsal fins, attached to the back, and anal fins behind the anal opening. The pectoral and ventral fins when present are always each two in number; but both kinds may be absent.

a broad vertical fin supported by the extremity of the vertebral column. In the most common form the tail is divided into two equal lobes, giving it a symmetrical appearance; this form is called homocercal. In many fishes, however, (as the sharks) the upper lobe of the tail is much larger than the lower, and the spinal column is prolonged into it. This form of tail is called heterocercal. (See fig. 31.)

The teeth of fishes are generally very numerous, and may be placed upon any part of the interior of the mouth, and even in the throat. (Fig. 30.) The stomach and intestines vary in form and dimensions. The stomach is usually large and welldefined. The intestine varies in length according to the food of the fish, being shortest in the carnivorous kinds. Its posterior extremity in many fishes has a peculiar spiral or screw-like structure. The liver is usually large, and the process of digestion is very rapid. The swimming bladder is a peculiar sac situated under the spine, filled with gas, and capable of being dilated or compressed, so as to enable the fish to rise or sink in the water. In some fishes it communi. cates by a duct with the oesophagus; in others there is no such communication; while in the flat-fishes, that live at the bottom of the sea, it is entirely wanting. Anatomically it is considered to represent a lung. (Fig. 27.)

Fishes propagate their species by eggs—though a few are ovoviviparous, i.e. retain the ova in their body till they are hatched. The ova are fertilized outside the body, and are usually in enormous numbers, as in the roe of the herring and cod. Among the elasmobranchs the number of ova is much smaller, and each ovum acquires before exclusion a horny sheath of various shape. The hatching process is generally left to take place without aid. A small number of fishes, however, construct nests.

The organs of smell consist of pits or sacs opening anteri. orly, closed behind, with nervous filaments spread out on their walls. The sense of taste must be far from acute, and the same may be said of the sense of hearing. The apparatus of hearing has no external communication. The eye is generally of considerable size, and somewhat flattened externally. Special organs of touch are wanting in general, though some fishes, as the cod and mullet, have labial filaments or barbules to some extent serving this purpose. Among the most curious appliances with which fishes are provided are the electrical apparatus that appear in some species, as in the torpedo or electric ray and the electric eel, both of which possess batteries capable of giving a shock of considerable power.

Fishes may be divided into two sections—the Chondropterygious (from Gr. chondros, cartilage, and pterygion, a fin), or Cartilaginous fishes, having a cartilaginous or fibro-cartilaginous skeleton; and the Osseous or Bony fishes, having a bony skeleton. The following is the arrangement of fishes

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I. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. Order 1.-CHONDROPTERYGII WITH FIXED BRANCHIÆ, i.e.

with the outer as well as the inner edge of the gills attached, and opening outwardly by several apertures. This order comprises such fishes as the Lampreys, the Sharks and

Rays. Order II.-CHONDROPTERYGII WITH BRANCHIÆ FREE as in

ordinary fishes, and like them with a single orifice furnished with an operculum or cover. To this order belong the Sturgeons and some other fishes.

Sub-order II.-Anacanthini. Fishes with fins entirely sup

ported by soft rays; ventral fins wanting, or if present placed under the throat beneath or in advance of the peo

toral fins. Fig. 5.-Cod (Gadus morrhua); ventral fins under pectorals;

mouth with a barbule. Fig. 6.- Turbot (Rhombus maximus); one of the flat-fishes;

body bordered by long dorsal and anal fins; bones of head twisted so as to bring both eyes on one side of body.

Sub-order III.- Acanthopteri. Fishes having one or more of

the first rays of the fins in the form of spines; scales usually

ctenoid ; ventral fins beneath or in front of the pectorals. Fig. 7.—Perch (Perca fluviatilis); Britain. Fig. 8. - Sapphirine gurnard (Trigla hirundo); British seas.

One of the Sclerogenidæ or mailed-cheeks; head with plates

and spines; pectoral fins large. Fig. 9. -- Angler or Fishing - froz (Lophius piscatorius);

British coasts. Pectoral fins, fleshy and supported on framework of bones; head with filaments which the animal waves as it lies in the mud, to attract the fishes on which

it feeds. Fig. 10.-Remora (Echeneis remora); Mediterranean. Head

with sucking disk by which the animal can attach itself to

objects. Fig. 11. -Sword-fish (Xiphias gladius); Mediterranean and

Atlantic. Upper jaw prolonged, and forming a formidable

weapon of attack. Fig. 12.-Sea-bat (Platax Gaimardi); Eastern seas. One of

the Squamipennes or scale-finned fishes.

Sub-order IV.--Plectognathi. Maxillary and premaxillary

bones immovably connected; vertebral column often permanently cartilaginous; body covered with ganoid plates,

scales or spines; ventral fins generally wanting. Fig. 13.-File-fish or Trigger-fish (Balistes conspicillum);

tropical seas. Fig. 14.-Prickly Globe-fish or Sea-hedgehog (Diodon pilosus);

tropical seas. Covered with spines, and body capable of

being inflated like a ball. Fig. 15.--Short Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus mola); found in most

seas.

II. OSSEOUS OR BONY FISHES. The Osseous or Bony fishes, namely those having a firm and bony skeleton, and the gills free and protected by a bony gill-cover, are divided into six orders, as follows: Order III. PLECTOGNATHI, fishes that have the maxillary and

pre-maxillary bones (which alone form the jaw) anchylosed or soldered together (whence the name from the Gr. plektos, interwoven, and gnathos, jaw); bodies covered with ganoid scales, plates, or spines. Examples are, the Globe-fish

or Sea Hedgehog, the Sun-fish, and the Trigger-fish. Order IV.-LOPHOBRANCHII (Gr. lophos, a crest or plume).

Fishes that have the gills in little round tufts disposed in pairs on the branchial arches: they are covered with ganoid scales. Example, the Sea-Horse or Hippocampus, and the Pipe-fish.

The rest of the bony fishes are divided into two great groups, the Malacopterygii, and the Acanthopterygii. The fishes of the first group, which is divided into three orders, have the rays supporting the fins soft or many-jointed (except sometimes the first ray of the dorsal or pectoral fins), and are generally covered with cycloid scales. The fishes of the second group, which forms a single order, have spiny

rays in their fins. Order V.-MALACOPTERYGII APODES. Fishes having a

lengthened form; a skin soft and thick which scarcely suffers their scales to appear; no ventral fins (whence the name apodes, footless). Examples, the Common Eel,

Electric Eel, Conger Eel, &c. Order VI.-MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI-Fishes having

the ventral fins placed under the pectorals, and immediately attached to the bones of the shoulder. Examples, the Cod, Ling, Haddock, &c., the Sole, Turbot, Flounder and

other flat-fishes. Order VII.-MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. Fishes having

the ventral fins attached to the lower part of the abdomen and behind the pectorals. Examples, the greater number of our fresh-water fishes, besides many marine species;

Salmon, Trout, Pike, Herring, Carp, &c. Order VIII.-ACANTHOPTERYGII. Fishes that have the first

portion of the dorsal fin, or the whole of the first dorsal when there are two-supported by spiny rays; sometimes instead of the first dorsal, they have nothing but a few spines; anal fin also with the first rays represented by spines, and generally one in each ventral fin: this order includes about three-fourths of all known fishes. Examples, the Perch, Wrasse, Mackerel, Mullet, Gurnard, &c.

Classifications differing in various respects from that of Cuvier are now commonly employed, though several of his divisions are still retained. The following orders (or subclasses) are usually recognized. Order I.-TELEOSTEI. Osseous or Bony Fishes, corresponding nearly to the Osseous fishes of Cuvier's classification.

Characters: Skeleton more or less thoroughly ossified; skull very complicated and composed of a number of distinct bones: two pairs of limbs usually present in the form of fins (the Malacopterygii having soft fin-rays, the Acan. thopterygii, spinous rays); gills free, comb-like, or tufted;

a bony gill-cover; usually cycloid or ctenoid scales. Sub-order 1.-Malacopteri. Fishes with a complete set of

fins supported by rays, all of which are soft, with occasional

and unimportant exceptions. Fig. 1.-Common Salmon (Salmo Salar). Fig. 2.-Flying-fish (Exocoetus volitans); Atlantic Ocean.

Pectoral fins of enormous size, so as to support the fish in taking long leaps out of the water.

a Lateral line. Fig. 3.-Garfish, Sea-pike or Mackerel-guide (Belone vulgaris);

British seas. Fig. 4.-Electric Eel (Gymnotus electricus); S. America; no

Sub-order V.-Lophobranchii. Gills in the form of little

tufts upon the branchial arches; scales ganoid. Fig. 16.-Hippocampus or Sea-horse (Hippocampus guttu

latus); Atlantic. Tail prehensile. Fig. 17.-Head and tail of Pipe-fish (Syngnathus viridis).

Order II.-ELASMOBRANCHII. Cartilaginous fishes, as the sharks and rays.

Characters: Skeleton cartilaginous; no bones in the head, the skull forming a cartilaginous box; gills forming a series of pouches; two pairs of fins supported by cartilaginous finrays; skin covered by placoid growths of various kinds, as tubercles, spines, &c.

Sub-order I.--Holocephali. Jaws bony and covered with

broad plates representing the teeth; only one external gill. aperture, covered with a gill cover; a powerful defensive spine on the back. The Chimæra or king of the herrings is an example.

Sub-order II.-Plagiostomi. Mouth transverse (Gr. plagios,

athwart) and on the under surface of the head; branchial sacs opening by several distinct apertures. Sharks, rays,

skate. Fig. 18.-White Shark (Carcharias vulgaris); the warmer

seas.

Fig. 19.-Large spotted Dog-fish (Scyllium calulus); British

coasts. Fig. 19 a.--Sea-purse or Egg of Dog-fish, partially opened to

show the young fish within. Fig. 20.-Head of Hammer-fish or Hammer-headed Shark

(Zygana malleus); tropical seas. The eyes are at the

transverse extremities of the head. Fig. 21.- Head of Saw-fish (Pristis antiquorum); in most of

the warmer seas. Snout prolonged into a flattened blade with tooth-like projections on either side.

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