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Order III.-GANOIDEI. Ganoid Fishes.

Characters: Body covered with ganoid plates, scales, or spines; skeleton partially ossified, the vertebral column being generally cartilaginous; skull with distinct cranial bones; usually two pairs of fins, the first rays of which are mostly in the form of spines; tail generally heterocercal.

There are few living ganoid fishes, the great majority of them being found fossil. The best known living examples

are the sturgeons. Fig. 22.–Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio); Caspian, Black Sea,

and other European waters. Head and body protected by

ganoid plates. Order IV.-MARSIPOBRANCHII. Lampreys and Hag-fishes.

Characters: General form eel-like or serpentine; no paired fins to represent the limbs, only a median fin extending round the posterior extremity of the body; mouth circular and destitute of jaws proper; gills in the form of

fixed pouches or sacs. Fig. 23.-Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus); British waters.

Seven round holes on either side of the neck admitting

water to the gills. Fig. 24.-Head of Myxine or Glutinous Hag (Myxine glutin

osa); British seas. a a Eight barbules or cirri. 6 Single hooked tooth. Lingual teeth. dd Mucous glands.ee Six branchial cells. f Apertures leading by canals and ducts to the branchial cells on either side.

СС

Fig. 27.-Principal Organs of a fish (the Carp). 1. Gills.

from the kidneys (the lat. 2. Heart.

ter have been removed). 3. Liver.

9. Anal opening in which 4. and 6. Swimming-bladder. the intestinal canal ter5. Intestinal canal.

minates. 7. Ovary or roe.

10. Genital opening or ovi8. Point of junction of the duct communicating ureters which proceed with the ovaries.

11. Urinary opening. Fig. 28. —Skeleton of an osseous fish (the Perch). a Intermaxillary bone. i Ventral fin, situated in 6 Superior maxillary bone. this case under the throat, c Inferior maxillary.

as in all the Sub-Brachid Orbit, which is bounded ati.

on the under side by the k Spiny rays of the anterior suborbital bones.

dorsal fin. e Occipital region.

1 Soft rays of the posterior f Operculum or gill-cover. dorsal fin like those of og' Vertebral column with Malacopterygii.

its superior and inferior m Rays of the anal fin.
arches.

nn' Bony rays forming the h Pectoral fin.

caudal fin or tail. Fig. 29.- Cartilaginous Skeleton of the Ray. Cr. Cranium.

Cd. V. Caudal Vertebræ. Ma. Jaws.

P. Pelvic bone. Br. Branchiæ.

Ph. pc. Phalanges of the PecC. V. Cervical Vertebræ.

toral Fin. Sh. Shoulder.

Ph. v. Phalanges of the VenD. V. Dorsal and Lumbar.

tral Fin. Vertebra.

D. F. First Dorsal Fin.

D. F. Second Dorsal Fin. Fig. 30.—Teeth of Fish. Front view of the mouth of the

Common Trout. a Row of teeth fixed on the lary bones.

vomer or central bone of d Row of hooked teeth on each roof of mouth.

side of the tongue (lingual bb Teeth on the right and left teeth). palatine bones.

ee Teeth on the inferior maxilcc Teeth on the superior maxil- lary bone.

Fig. 31.-Tails or Caudal Fins of Fishes. aa' Two forms of homocercal and equally lobed. tail.

6 Heterocercal tail (sturgeon) a Tail of wrasse, rounded. unequally bilobate a' Tail of sword-fish, bifurcate lobed.

Fig. 32.—Principal forms assumed by the scales of fishes. a Ctenoid, pectinated or comb- ee' Placoid scale, upper surface like scale.

and profile. 6 Cycloid or circular scale. f Ganoid scale, upper surface. c Cycloid scale.

f Ditto, in profile. d Placoid scale, upper surface. f" Ditto, under surface.

Order V.- PHARYNGOBRANCHII. The Lancelot, the only example.

Characters; No skull or distinct brain; no distinct heart; no vertebræ; no limbs; mouth a longitudinal fissure surrounded by filaments; walls of the pharynx perforated by

ciliated slits which serve as branchiæ. Fig. 25.-Lancelet or Amphioxus (Amphioxus lanceolatus);

British seas (natural size).

or

Order VI.-DIPNOI. Represented by only a few fishes, as the Mud-fishes.

Characters : Body somewhat eel-like in form and covered with scales, a median fin round the pointed posterior extremity; skull with distinct cranial bones; pectoral and ventral limbs both present and filiform or sometimes paddle-shaped; both gills and lungs present. These animals form a connecting link between the fishes and the

amphibia. Fig. 26.-Mud-fish or Lepidosiren (Lepidosiren annectens);

West Africa.
p Pectoral fins. v Ventral fins.

GEOLOGY.

ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS USED IN GEOLOGY.

STRATA left in their original position are usually horizontal (Ag. 1, a). Where they have been subsequently disturbed so as to be tilted more or less out of that original position, they are said to be inclined; the angle of inclination is called the dip, and the rocks are said to dip in the direction of greatest slope or declivity. In fig. 3. the dip is shown by the faces of the rock represented as inclined towards the observer's left hand. Imaginary lines running at right angles to the line of dip are lines of strike, and are represented by the line where the surface of the water cuts the faces inclined towards the observer. The strike of a stratum is always constant for a given dip; but the outcrop or line where the rock appears at the surface, varies in form and direction with the variation in the form of the surface itself.

Strata bent upwards into an arch form what is called an anticlinal (fig. 1, b), and a bend in the opposite direction gives

a rise to a synclinal (fig. 1, c). Strata suddenly bent from a horizontal to a vertical position, and then back to a horizontal position again without rising to the same level as before,

anticlinals have been squeezed together so as to double the rocks up quite on end; such strata are described as vertical (fig. 1, e). Where the folding has taken place in such a manner as to lay the folds more or less on their sides, the strata lying face downward are said to be inverted (fig. 1, ). Contorted strata are such as have been crumpled into an irregular series of folds, too complicated to be separately distinguished (fig 1, g).

A fault is a plane of dislocation affecting rocks in such a way that a particular bed is broken off and slipped to a lower level on the one side of the plane than its counterpart on the other. (See fig. 2.) The side of the fault occupied by the lower of the two is called the downthrow, and the opposite side is sometimes spoken of as the upthrow. A fault is generally a narrow fissure extending downwards, either singly or in conjunction with other faults, to an indefinite depth from the surface; and extending in a horizontal direction to a distance dependent upon the amount of downthrow, and upon the nature of the dip affecting the rocks on either side of the fault.

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termination of a bed on one side of the fault, and the corresponding point on the other. This may range from a dislocation scarcely perceptible to a throw of many thousands of feet.

Faults are usually inclined from the vertical more or less; the inclination is called the hade of the fault, which is said to hade in the direction of the slope. In an ordinary fault this hade, or inclination from the perpendicular, is forward at the foot in the direction of the downthrow, and no part of a faulted stratum is brought vertically beneath its counterpart on the other side of the fault. Where the fault hades in the opposite direction it is called a reversed fault (fig. 2, a).

Two or more faults frequently throw down towards each other, and their respective hades are such as to cause the faults to meet below the surface. Such faults are termed trough faults (fig. 2,6). Where the depression of the strata represents the aggregate effect of a series of minor faults, each in succession letting the rock down in the same direction to lower levels, the term step fault is found convenient (fig. 2, c).

The faces of the rock contiguous to a fault are frequently scored and fluted, and they exhibit other signs of grinding against each other under pressure. To these markings the term slickensides is applied.

The matter detached by friction and caught in the interspaces between the faces of the rock in a fa'ilt is usually cemented by infiltered mineral matter, and then constitutes a fault-breccia or rider.

Where faults, seen in plan, are shifted out of their course along the line of a fault transverse to them in direction, this last is called a cross vein or caunter, and the faults deranged are said to be trailed.

The same kind of dislocation seen in vertical section is distinguished as a heave. In this last case the dislocated fault is undoubtedly older than the fault that heaves it. In the former case it is the reverse.

The contact disturbance attending a fault gives rise to bending of the strata next the fault. This bending is often spoken of as the burr.

The name of joints (fig. 3) is applied to the divisional planes that cut in two or more directions across the bedding planes of hard rocks, and divide what would otherwise have been continuous sheets of stone into separate blocks. Jointing differs from cleavage in affecting the rock only along certain lines, instead of developing a general tendency to split into an indefinite number of sheets as cleavage does. Joints are developed in greatest prominence in thickly-bedded stratified rocks, especially in such as are of a compact nature. In such cases they may be observed to cut down through the rock in two or more directions approximately perpendicular to the planes of bedding. The horizontal extension of joints may range to every point of the compass, but there is a marked tendency, where more than two sets occur, for one of the more prominent sets (or master joints) to be intersected by another prominent set at such angles as to enclose blocks whose outlines vary from rhombic to rectangular. (See also fig. 9.)

The bearing, or orientation, of joints varies considerably in different places, and does not appear to be persistent for any great distance in any given district; but it is not uncommon to find one set ranging in a general way in the same direction as the dip, and another set bearing at right angles to these and therefore parallel with the strike. The first are called dip joints, and the other strike joints. In the diagram (fig. 3,) the dip joints are shown cutting down vertically through the rock in a direction away from the observer; while the strike joints intersect the dip joints at right angles, and thus unite with the bedding planes to divide the rock up into rectangular blocks.

Strata are called conformable (fig. 4,) when they lie with an even junction on the original upper surface of one and the same bed of the rocks next below them, and are therefore affected to an equal extent by the same dips. In normal conformability the upper strata form part of one series with the

the physical relation of the higher strata to the lower are of this nature in one locality, in another the lowest bed of the higher service may extend across, or overstep, several members of the series next below. In such a case the rocks are said to be locally or accidentally conformable.

Where a stratum has been deposited in unequal thickness in an area under notice, so that at one part it is found to thin away to nothing, the upper stratum extending beyond it is said to overlap the one that thins out, and the case is described as one of orerlap. (See fig. 5.) Thus in the diagram b thins away in one direction so that a comes into direct contact with c below, and is said to overlap b. Tracing the physical relations of these in an opposite direction, or from d in the direction of a in the figure 6, is said to underlap a. In overlap the absence of the bed that is overlapped arises from the fact that the stratum locally absent has never been deposited at that point at all; while in overstep, which is often confounded with overlap, and denotes the relation of a higher set of strata to a lower in the case of unconformity (fig. 6), the strata locally absent have been disturbed and afterwards removed by denudation.

Where a particular stratum known to form a bed of importance in one direction gradually dies away in another, as a result of unequal deposition, the stratum is said to thin out at the point where it comes to nothing (fig. 5). Another term of the same kind, which is often restricted to the attenuation of a bed of minor importance, is wedge-bedding.

Where the basement beds of one group of strata have been deposited over the edges of more than one member of the ser below, as a consequence of the lower group having been consolidated, disturbed by upheaval, and partly denuded, before the deposition of the strata that now overlie them, the two sets are said to be unconformable to each other (fig. 6), and their physical relations to each other are denoted by the term unconformability or unconformity. Unconformity may range in extent from such cases as that of the Lower Eocene strata on the Chalk in the South of England, where the discordancy can be perceived only by an instructed eye, to such unconformities as that at the base of the Carboniferous rocks in the northern parts of the kingdom, where the gentlyinclined basement beds of the higher series are supported upon the upturned edges of the rocks below, so that the Car. boniferous rocks overstep a thickness of over five miles of the pre-carboniferous rocks beneath (fig. 6).

Interbedded eruptive rocks (fig. 7) are accumulations of rock matter that have been primarily derived from deepseated sources, and that have been distributed over the surface in the neighbourhood of a volcano. The matter cast out from a volcano may consist of lavas (fig 7, a) or the liquefied rock that has flowed from the crater over the surface adjoining; or of the same materials as compose the lavas hurled forth in the form of various-sized fragments, and subsequently rained through the air and distributed over the surface. Mud poured out from volcanic vents also forms part of the matter ejected. The coarser volcanic materials of a fragmental nature form volcanic breccias or agglomerates when compacted into stone (fig. 7,b); while the like accumulations of finer materials are usually distinguished as tuffs. In maritime districts any or all of these forms of eruptive matter may be deposited alternately with beds of the ordinary sedimentary type, and the tuffs may graduate insensibly into other deposits in directions away from the vents. Interbedded eruptive rocks are known to occur of all ages, from the oldest Cambrian rocks of St. David's to the strata forming at the present day.

Intrusive eruptive rocks (fig. 8) differ from interbedded or contemporaneous eruptive rocks in their mode of occurrence in relation to the strata surrounding them; as they commonly cut across the bedding of the stratified rocks, and are therefore of later date than the rocks they traverse. Intrusive eruptive rocks may occur in the form of great masses that from an unknown depth below the surface have, as molten matter, eaten their way upwards through the overlying rocks

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the causes that gave rise to the formation of a mass in one case, may in another have impelled the molten matter in such a direction that it has eaten its way into the rocks along a direction frequently approaching that of the bedding, and thus have given rise to intrusive sheets (fig. 8,6). In other cases the same matter has been forced upwards along vertical fissures, and has been left in the form of wall-like masses of rock or dikes (fig. 8, c).

Cleavage (fig. 9) is the tendency to split into an indefinite number of thin layers in one direction, which direction is not necessarily connected with any original structural differences of the rock.

There are two recognized forms of cleavage; the one representing the tendency inherent in certain definite chemical compounds to fracture more readily in particular directions than in others, which directions always bear some definite geometrical relation to the particular crystalline structure of the mineral; while the other is developed only as the result of certain imperfectly understood special conditions, which have affected particular portions of large mineral aggregates more or less according to their texture rather than to their chemical composition. It is now customary to restrict the term slate to rocks of this description. The rocks most commonly affected by slaty clearage are such as originally consisted of clayey or argillaceous materials of sedimentary origin; but the same structure is not uncommonly met with in the finer portions of the older volcanic tutfs. A good example of this last is afforded by the cleaved volcanic tuffs or

green slatesof the English Lake District. The discrimination between planes of cleavage and the original bedding planes of the cleaved rock is often attended with great difficulty in the field, and can generally be satisfactorily determined only by the discovery of the stripe, or alternations of texture, resulting from original differences in the character of the various layers of material composing the rock. In the figure the stripe or original bedding is shown by the undulating bands parallel to the upper and the under surfaces, the triangular face cutting obliquely downwards across the front right-hand corner of the specimen represents a plane resulting from the cleavage. The edges of other cleavage planes are shown cutting across the stripe or bedding in directions parallel to the edges of the triangular face. The remaining bounding surfaces at the front, sides, and back are joints.

Conglomerate (fig. 10, A) is the name given to rock consisting of consolidated shingle. It is formed of an accumulation of rock-fragments of sedimentary origin, many of them of large size, and most of them well-rounded in form, bound together into a mass of a more or less stony nature by some cementing material instead of remaining in its original condition of a bed of loose stones or shingle. Where the conglomerate consists of water-worn materials of volcanic origin it is distinguished as a volcanic conglomerate, or agglomerate.

If the proportion of materials of a rounded form is less than that of such as are angular the rock then becomes a breccia (fig. 10, B). Breccia thus resembles a conglomerate in consisting of a noticeable proportion of large stones compacted into a mass, but is characterized by containing more angular constituents than rounded. Where the materials consist of angular fragments of rocks derived directly from a volcanic source the resulting rock is a volcanic breccia; finer materials of the same nature constitute a tuff. Both volcanic breccias and tuffs are often termed volcanic ashes. (See also fig. 7.) Where the rounded fragments outnumber the angular these rocks graduate into their respective conglomerates.

Oblique lamination (fig. 11) is a term usually applied to the deposition of the several layers composing a bed of rock at an angle different from the general lie of the rock as a whole. Where the inclined layers are of considerable thickness the rock is said to exhibit false-bedding, or current-bed. ding, the last-mentioned term denoting the cause. Oblique lamination and false-bedding generally result from irregular deposition of materials drifted along the bottom by variable currents of water; but a similar structure is often developed

general nature, is drifted into beds by the action of the wind.

The name of inlier (fig. 12, A, and 1 in fig. 13) is given to an exposure of an older stratum at the surface in such a manner that it is completely surrounded by other strata of later date, which formerly extended across it, but have since been removed by irregular denudation. Occasionally the exposure of the older stratum is due to the combined effects of faults and denudation; in that case the older stratum ex. posed is termed a faulted inlier.

An outlier again (fig. 12, B, and also o in fig. 13) is an outstanding relic of a stratum, formerly more extensive, which has been isolated by the removal of the strata that once connected it with the principal mass, so that it now occurs as a detached remnant surrounded by rocks of older date.

Escarpment (fig. 13, E) is a term correctly restricted to the steep outer edge presented by such strata of a series as have better withstood the action of the destroying influences that have been brought to bear against them than the strata immediately above and below. An escarpment differs from a cliff in coinciding with the outcrop of a particular bed of rock, whether this is inclined or not, whereas a cliff is formed without regard to either the nature or the lie of the rock, and its base always approximates more or less closely to horizontality. Escarpments may be regarded as ranging on the whole parallel with the strike, and their steep side as facing in the opposite direction to the dip or direction of greatest inclination of the rock. The slope formed by the exposed upper portion of an inclined stratum, extending from the escarpment in the direction of the line where the next higher stratum comes on, is called the dip slope (fig. 13, D). (See also fig. 3.)

The names boulders and boulder clay (figs. 14, 15, 16) pertain to a promiscuous assemblage of stones of all sorts and sizes jumbled together without regard to either their size or their form in a matrix of clay which usually exhibits no very obvious signs of stratification. The stones include a variable percentage that are smoothed and are characterized by the occurrence of grooves and scratches, mostly running in the direction of the length of the stone, but sometimes crossing that line at various angles. The stones vary in size, from mere grains up to blocks many feet in diameter, and they may include representatives of rocks whose birthplace is known to lie at distances ranging from a few hundred yards to as many miles from their present resting-place. The larger stones that are smoothed and furrowed in this way are called glaciated boulders (fig. 14). Such boulders are usually found to have travelled outwards in a direction away from the centres of mountain groups; but more of them have travelled in directions from the Pole towards the equator than in other directions. It is not uncommon to find instances of boulders occurring at points considerably higher than any part of the parent rock.

The rock surface underlying boulder clay is frequently characterized by similar appearances to those presented by the boulders; that is to say, it is smoothed and more or less distinctly furrowed in one or more directions. Where this surface has a convex, knoll-shaped form, it is called a roche moutonnée (fig. 15, A). Boulders carried by ice and left stranded in conspicuous positions are often spoken of as perched blocks (fig. 15, B).

The phenomena under notice are now generally admitted to be due to glacial action of some one or other kind; but the particular mode of operation resulting in any given effect has not yet been generally agreed upon.

The columnar structure of rock is exhibited in fig. 17. This is a form of jointing affecting certain rocks that have originated in a molten condition. The rock is intersected at right angles to the surfaces of cooling by three or more sets of divisional planes, which occur at approximately equal distances apart, and cross each other at such angles as to divide the rock into a series of prisnis more or less regularly hexagonal in section. Columnar structure is developed in

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though usually in a less perfect form, in eruptive rocks of other kinds.

Rocks often present a vesicular structure (fig. 18) where lava flowing out from volcanic vents contains much entangled gas or vapour, and the molten rock is blown out at numerous points, so that cavities, cells, or vesicles are formed. These occur in greatest number where the pressure is at the least, which is usually near the upper surface of each flow. Vesicular structure may range in extent from a few cells occurring at remote intervals throughout rock otherwise compact in texture, to rock like pumice, which consists of a light spongy mass of cell walls, like a mass of froth changed to stone.

The vesicles in a lava are usually drawn out into almondshaped cavities by the flow of the rock prior to complete solidification. Where these almond-shaped cavities become filled with other mineral matter the separate kernels are called amygdules, and the rock itself an amygdaloid. Vesicular structure is sometimes found in intrusive rocks; and is occasionally developed also in rocks of purely sedimentary origin.

Cellular structure resembles vesicular structure in some respects, but is often due to the shrivelling up of the rock caused by a change of its dimensions in passing from one chemical state to another, as where ordinary limestone is altered into magnesian limestone or dolomite, and cells or geodes result from the general contraction of the rock. Another kind of cellular structure is due to the removal, by solution or otherwise, of part of the materials composing a fragmentary rock, such as a breccia, or a conglomerate, the spaces they occupied being left vacant.

Foliation (fig. 19) is the re-arrangement of the constituents

Granite (fig. 20) is essentially a granular-crystalline eruptive rock formed and consolidated beneath the surface under conditions of great pressure. The minerals composing it consist of more or less well-defined crystals of orthoclase or potash felspar, with interspersed granules of quartz, and, in normal granites, with one or more species of mica; other species of felspar are also usually present as well. The separate constituents of granite may range from proportions only just discernable by the unaided eye, to crystals two inches or more in length. Where large crystals form a conspicuous feature in the rock it is termed a porphyritic granite. Granites occur of all ages, from the date of the oldest known rocks down to the Tertiary Period. Granites appear to represent the innermost parts of masses that were connected on the one hand with truly intrusive and volcanic rocks, and on the other with metamorphic rocks of sedimentary origin.

The spherulitic structure (fig. 21) is one of the principal types of minute structure rendered evident by a microscopic examination of thin slices of certain vitreous acid rock's (eruptive rocks containing more than 60 per cent of silica), notably in the glassy or vitreous lavas known as obsidian. It is occasionally developed in similarly constituted rocks of intrusive origin, or even in rocks whose present peculiarities of structure are largely due to the action of metamorphism. Under the microscope spherulitic rocks exhibit, in a base of variable mineral constitution, minute scattered granules of a more decidedly vitreous nature, which show an approximately circular outline more or less definite in proportion to the abruptness or otherwise of the transition from the spherulite into the matrix. The inner part of each spherulite usually presents a radiate structure, due to the incipient development of groups of minute crystals.

The perlitic structure (fig. 22) is due to a tendency developed in certain vitreous acidic rocks to fracture into minute concentric layers of a spheroidal form, in the interspaces between the minor shrinkage-fissures traversing the rock. On a large scale the same structure finds a parallel in the spheroidal structure developed in some basalts. Both structures are now generally regarded as being developed by the contraction of the rock consequent upon its solidification. (Rutley, Study of Rocks, p. 182.)

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form parallel layers of definite mineral constitution. These layers are not necessarily connected with the original stratification of the rock, though their coincidence is common. As a rule foliation represents one of the stages of metamorphism whose extreme is occupied by granite. Amongst the rocks exhibiting foliation are mica schist and gneiss. In fig. 19, which represents a piece of gneiss, the lighter bands denote quartz and felspar, and the darker bands layers of mica.

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