course recently adopted, with the Rev. Charles Fox, one of the editors of the Farmer's Companion and Horticultural Gazette, and later the author of a widely used Textbook of Agriculture (1854), as the first professor of agriculture.

Two years later the Massachusetts Legislature urged Congress to make a grant of public lands for a "national normal, agricultural college, which should be to the rural sciences what West Point is to the military, for the purpose of educating teachers and professors for service in all the states of the republic.”

There is thus sufficient evidence that by the middle of the nineteenth century the need of agricultural education was definitely recognized, and more than that, it had been pressed on the attention of Congress in various ways. It is true that no one had yet drafted a scheme on which a national system could be based, but, as will be shown in another section, the apportionment of the proceeds from the sales of public lands for the purposes of education had been suggested more than once. It remained for the legislature of Illinois to frame a resolution combining all the features so far discussed: distribution of public lands to each state in the Union for the maintenance of institutions for the promotion of practical training in agriculture and industries. These resolutions were the outcome of a movement among the farmers of Illinois which began in 1851, and in which Professor Jonathan B. Turner was the leading spirit. Since so much influence is attributed to the resolutions, they are here reprinted.

Whereas, the spirit and progress of this age and country demand the culture of the highest order of intellectual attainment in theoretics and industrial science; and

Whereas, it is impossible that our commerce and prosperity will continue to increase without calling into requisition all the elements of internal thrift arising from the labors of the farmer, the mechanic, and the manufacturer, by every fostering effort within the reach of the government; and

Whereas, a system of Industrial Universities, liberally endowed in each state of the union, co-operative with each other, and with the Smithsonian Institute at Washington, would develop a more liberal and practical education among the people, tend to more intellectualize the rising generation and eminently conduce to the virtue, intelligence and true glory of our common country; therefore be it Resolved, by the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring herein, That our Senators in Congress be instructed, and our Representatives be requested, to use their best exertions to procure the passage of a law of Congress donating to each state in the Union an amount of public lands not less in value than five hundred thousand dollars, for the liberal endowment of a system of Industrial Universities, one in each state in the Union, to co-operate with each other, and with the Smithsonian Institute at Washington, for the more liberal and practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers; a liberal and varied education, adapted to the manifold wants of a practical and enterprising people, and a provision for such educational facilities being in manifest concurrence with the intimations of the popular will; it urgently demands the united efforts of our strength.

Resolved, That the Governor is hereby authorized to forward a copy of the foregoing resolutions to our Senators and Representatives in Congress, and to the Executive and Legislature of each of our sister States, inviting them to co-operate with us in this meritorious enterprise.

On December 7 of the same year Mr. Lyon gave notice in Congress that he would ask leave to introduce a bill for the establishment of a national agricultural college and experimental farm.

The states did not seem disposed to wait for Congressional action on the matter. Three agricultural schools were established before Senator Morrill began his campaign for federal aid. In 1854 Pennsylvania established a state agricultural school, followed in 1855 by Michigan. In the latter year New York State voted $40,000 for an agricultural school at Ovid, provided the friends of the school collected a similar amount. In 1856 Senator Morrill took up the question and offered a resolution in the House of Representatives to the effect "that the Committee on Agriculture be requested to inquire into the expediency of establishing one or more national agricultural schools upon the basis of the naval and military schools." This resolution does not seem to substantiate the claim of those who insist not merely that Senator Morrill was directly inspired by Professor Turner, but that he was even selected by him because of his interest in agriculture and as a representative of one of the older states to lead the movement in Congress. Evidently in 1856 Senator Morrill had no definite plan in mind. Whether he ever had a clear idea of what the institution sponsored by him really stood for must be gathered from an examination of the evolution of his views during the thirty years of his advocacy of agricultural education.

HIGHER AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE.

In the speech in which he introduced the bill for the distribution of land grants for the support of agricultural and mechanical education, Senator Morrill referred enthusiastically to the extensive facilities afforded by most European countries for the study of agriculture. Some of the advocates of federal aid for agricultural education also based their petitions on European examples. In 1851 Professor Hitchcock reported on agricultural education in Europe to a commission appointed by the Massachusetts legislature to enquire into the general question of agricultural education. He found three hundred and fifty-two institutions giving agricultural education of varying degrees, of which twenty-two were superior schools and fourteen were connected with colleges and universities. The two earliest agricultural colleges were started in 1797 at Hofwyl in Switzerland and Krumau in Bohemia. Few educational institutions have had as great an influence in the advancement of agricultural and technical education as Fellenberg's school at Hofwyl, but this influence was mainly exercised on institutions of lower grade than colleges. The advanced study of agriculture,

indeed, was dependent on the development of applied chemistry, with the consequence that the higher institutions were necessarily of later growth than the lower, which were hardly more than apprenticeship schools.

Abbé Rosier was one of the earliest advocates of agricultural education in France when in 1775 he made the suggestion, repeated in 1789, that a Royal Park at Chambord be converted into an agricultural school. In 1789, too, Lavoisier recommended to the Convention the establishment of an institution for scientific instruction in agriculture. When the French educational system was reorganized under Napoleon no provision was made for agriculture because, as was explained to the legislature, "it is the duty of landed proprietors to teach this great art practically on their own estates, and of the agricultural societies to make known good practices in their respective departments.” It was also added that the natural sciences applicable to all branches of rural economy would be taught in a sufficiently large number of schools to enable all who desired progress in agriculture to obtain the requisite knowledge. No aid could therefore be expected from the government. In 1818 M. Dombasle founded an agricultural school at Roville, which with the aid of private subscriptions had a successful career until its decline in 1842. The institution attracted wide attention not only thru its work but also thru its publication, Annales de Roville, and in 1831 received some slight subsidy from the government. Probably under the influence of the Roville experiment, the Royal Agronomic Institution was established in 1827 at Grignon, near Versailles. A government grant of $12,000 annually was paid to the institution. The Grignon school was followed in 1830 by a private foundation at Coetbo, and in 1833 by another at Grand Jouan, which was established by a pupil of M. Dombasle and received departmental subsidy. The Grand Jouan institution became a regional school in 1842. The success of these institutions aroused in the government and the General Council of Agriculture an interest in agricultural education. A committee was appointed and reported in favor of the establishment of farm schools to furnish elementary instruction in agriculture, of regional schools to provide the next stage, and of a superior national institution in Paris. These recommendations were embodied in a decree adopted on October 3, 1848, with the exception that the National Agronomic Institution remained at Grignon.

Some interest in agricultural education began to be shown in Germany in the eighteenth century. The movement was connected with the establishment of realistic schools, and in particular with the interest of Frederick the Great in promoting the development of agriculture in his state. Further impetus was given to the movement by the practice of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg. In 1802 Albrecht D. Thaer (1752-1828), author of the Principles of Rational Agriculture and numerous other works on agriculture, established an agricultural school at Celle for purposes of scientific exposition and demonstration. Four years later he was invited by the King of Prussia to move his school to Möglin. Here the Akademie des Ackerbaues or Höhere Lehranstalt für Landwirthschaft attracted much attention and found many

imitators throughout Germany, among which were the following: Hohenheim (1818), Idstein (1818), Schleissheim (1822, later moved to Weihenstephan), Jena (1826), Tharandt (1829), Eldena (1835), Regenswalde (1842), Proskau (1847), Weende (1851), Waldau (1858). After 1861 a movement, inspired by Friedrich Gottlieb Schulze, the founder of the agricultural institute at Jena, began for the abolition of separate institutions and for the establishment of agricultural institutes in the universities. This practice was endorsed by Liebig, whose contributions to agricultural chemistry more than anything else placed the study of agriculture on a scientific basis. Agricultural institutes were established at Halle (1862), Leipzig (1869), Giessen (1871), Königsberg (1876), and Kiel and Breslau (1881). The agricultural institute opened in Berlin in 1868 became the Königliche Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule in 1881.

In addition to the higher institutions there was developed in Prussia a system of middle agricultural schools of the same grade as six year secondary schools. These Landwirtschaftsschulen were established about 1875, so that they exercised no influence on Senator Morrill. Another type of agricultural schools (Ackerbauschulen) was of a lower grade school and arose at the beginning of the century to furnish elementary instruction in agriculture. In 1851, the date of Professor Hitchcock's report, there were in Germany twelve superior institutions for agricultural education, of which three were connected with universities, sixteen intermediate, and forty-nine lower schools.

England offered but little encouragement to those who in this country were interested in the promotion of agricultural education. It was not until 1845 that the first agricultural college was established at Cirencester by the subscription of the local gentry. The plan was proposed in 1842, and the charter of the college declared its purpose to be the "teaching of the science of agriculture and the various sciences connected therewith, and the practical application thereof to the cultivation of the soil and the rearing and management of stock." In 1880 the institution became the Royal Agricultural College. The government only began to assist agricultural education in 1882, when it established a lectureship in agriculture at the Normal School of Science in London, and about the same period the Department of Science and Art included among its examinations one on the principles of agriculture. Scotland had preceded England by the founding of a chair of agriculture at Edinburgh University in 1790 by Sir William Pulteney, which was held for forty years by Dr. Coventry. At Marischal College, Aberdeen, a lectureship in agricultural chemistry was established in 1840. Professor Hitchcock reported five institutions in England, of which one only was of superior grade, and the two lectureships here referred to in Scotland. Ireland had far more to offer by way of example. Here Professor Hitchcock found one superior school, twenty-five intermediate, and thirty-four inferior schools of agriculture as well as three chairs of agriculture in university colleges. In 1838 the superior agricultural school was established at Glasnevin with a model farm attached. At the

same time a number of model agricultural schools, corresponding to the intermediate schools referred to by Professor Hitchcock, were organized under the Commission of National Education. Elementary or ordinary agricultural schools were also established by local patrons at this period, and agricultural departments were opened in workhouses and juvenile reform institutions. Professorships of agriculture were founded at each of the Queen's Colleges at Belfast, Cork, and Galway. The professors had the use of model farms and botanical gardens, and offered two year courses leading to diplomas. For that period Ireland, considering her population, offered better facilities for scientific training in agriculture than any other country.

Of the other European countries to which Professor Hitchcock refers, Italy had one inferior school, and one institute connected with a university; Austria had four superior schools, three inferior schools, twenty-five schools for special branches, and one university institute; and Russia had two superior schools, ten intermediate and fiftyone inferior schools, four schools for special branches, and one university institute. The European situation had much in it that was helpful to those who were interested in agriculture in this country. The movements almost coincided in point of time. The European schools not only offered an example in the matter of curriculum but—and at the time this was more important for the propagandists in this country— showed the great interest taken by the governments in this type of education.

SENATOR MORRILL AND HIS COLLEGES

It is no depreciation of the merit of Senator Morrill's service to education to say that he builded better than he knew. Whatever his motives in undertaking the advocacy of the measure to secure federal aid for agricultural education, it is difficult to resist the opinion that he had no definite picture in mind of the kind of institution that he was helping to build up. Indeed, the whole subject of agricultural education and policy forms but a meagre portion of the many hundreds of pages given to the discussion of the subject of federal aid for colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. The evolution in Senator Morrill's mind during the thirty years of his advocacy of the subject indicates a gradual departure from his original idea. When, in 1857, he urged the establishment of the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, it was on the ground that agriculture was declining thru lack of scientific knowledge and that each profession should be given an opportunity to educate itself. "The farmer and the mechanic require special schools and appropriate literature quite as much as any one of the socalled learned professions. . . . It is plainly an indication that education is taking a step in advance when public sentiment begins to demand that the faculties of young men shall be trained with some reference to the vocation to which they are to be devoted through life." The outline which he presented of the definite purposes of such colleges was more applicable to an agricultural research bureau and laboratory than