crowded streets only a few horses are hitched together, in this case, to assist a single man; but the horses are large and strong. A single team, consisting of two horses, is able to move a load of four to ten tons over paved streets-a load equal to that carried by a freight car in the early days of steam railways.

The horse cheapens production.-In 1830, it required an average of three hours and three minutes of human labor for each bushel of wheat grown; in 1896 it required

ten minutes. In 1855 it required an average of four hours and thirty-four minutes to grow, harvest and shell one. bushel of corn; in 1894 it required 41 minutes.* The heavy, clumsy plow of 1830 has given way to more modern implements, such as the gang plow, disk plow, disk harrow and the like, which both plow and pulverize the soil in the same operation. Hand sowing has been displaced by the mechanical seeder drawn by horses. Hand harvesting with knife and peg, cradling and thrashing with flail has given way to reaping, thrashing and

*Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1897, page 600.

sacking with the combined reaper and thrasher drawn by horses.

The horse as a pleasure animal.-Not only is the horse of service to us in conserving our energies, but he provides us with health-giving pleasure. There can be no doubt that the horse was used in war and sport many centuries before he began to take up our burdens. This is fully attested by our earliest written history. In fact, the first improvement attempted was to increase the horse's efficiency in war and sport and not in economic

industry. Breeding horses for sport and fashion constitutes a very large part of the industry at the present time, though this work has been affected to some extent by the automobile.

Number and value of horse stock in the United States. -According to the Thirteenth Census there are 27,618,242 horses, mules and asses in the United States, valued at $3,085,460,483. This value is twenty-eight per cent greater than that of cattle, swine, sheep and goats combined. At least one-half of this horse stock is capable of doing work, which is equal to more than one hundred million hand laborers. This illustrates the vast addition to the wealth and productive power of the nation that we

secure by the intelligent breeding and utilization of the horse, as well as the great economy secured in substituting brute force for human energy. This also illustrates the strength of the horse as an economic animal. Though he has been threatened by the steam car, the bicycle, the electric street and suburban car, by the automobile and the like, he has steadily increased in numbers and value. As a source of power and as a substitute for human labor in combination with machines, the horse's economic place is more strongly established than ever before.

Since the horse is such an economic factor in our production and progress, we should acquaint ourselves with the history and methods of improvement of this most useful and pleasure-giving animal; so that not only good horses may be produced, but that such selection, breeding, feeding and training be practiced as will secure, not only the best horses, but those which shall be best adapted to the work for which they are intended. It is not only unwise but poor economy to grow a horse which will increase man's productive power only fivefold, when a more intelligent effort might have produced one which would increase it ten times.

CHAPTER II

JUDGING A HORSE

The ability to judge a horse accurately is acquired by careful observation, study and experience. Not all of us have the naturally keen observing powers and love for the horse peculiar to some persons, who become notable experts; but each of us may acquire a practical, useful knowledge of the exterior of the horse by methodical and conscientious effort. To become a good judge of horses is well worth our earnest attention. Such an attainment gives us much personal satisfaction as well as the necessary information for use in breeding, feeding, buying. selling and managing horses.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD JUDGE

To become proficient in judging any class of farm animals there are three faculties that should be well developed-familiarity with type desired, powers of observation and good judgment.

The use influences the type.-In judging horses we must first consider the uses for which they are desired and the type or breed that will best accomplish the given purpose. Thus, if the horse is wanted for light harness. and fast driving, it would be a mistake to choose an animal of the coach type; or if the object sought is style and high action, it would be none the less a mistake to choose a trotting or pacing horse. The more familiar we are with the demand and the type best suited to meet it, the better our chances of success.

Cultivate the power of observation.-The power of observation should be well developed. We must train the eye to see quickly and accurately, so that there may be no

mistake in the observations that are to form the basis for a conclusion. In addition to seeing things as they are, we should be able to detect deviations from the correct form. This is often difficult. We may be familiar with the fact that a few gray hairs on the inside of the pasterns may indicate that the horse interferes, and yet when we examine him entirely overlook the white hairs. In such cases as this the difficulty is often increased by the horseman attempting to cover up such signs, and this should serve to put us on our guard. Having examined

FIG. 6.-A WELL-EQUIPPED JUDGING PAVILION

the horse carefully we should retain a mental picture of him, as it often happens that we are called upon to judge large rings of animals, and the work can be greatly facilitated if we can remember each animal. Further, retaining such a picture is of value in matching teams.

Efficiency depends on judgment and practice. After having noted each of the horses to be considered, the judgment is brought into play to decide which should be placed first. In judging horses, efficiency depends largely