beneficial, to be expected from calcareous ma- has been deprived by washing of a considerable nures, on the several kinds of soils there described. portion of its natural soil, though not yet made Information obtained from statements in detail of entirely barren. The foregoing remarks equally agricultural experiments, is far more satisfactory to apply to this kind of land, to the extent that its the attentive and laborious inquirer, than a mere soil has been carried off. It will be profitable to report of the general opinions of the experimenter, apply marl to such land-but its effect will be diderived from the results. But however preferable minished, in proportion to the previous removal of may be this mode of reporting facts, it is necessa- the soil. Calcareous soils are much less apt to rily deficient in method, clearness, and concise- wash than other kinds, from the difference of texness. It may therefore be useful to bring together ture. When a field that has been injured by the general results of these experiments in a some-washing is marled, within a few years after many what digested form, to serve as rules for practice. of the old gulleys will begin to produce vegetation, Other effects of calcareous manures will also be and show a soil gradually forming from the dead stated, which are equally established by expe- vegetables brought there by winds and rains, alrience, but which did not belong to any one accu- though no means should have been used to aid this rately observed experiment. operation. The results that have been reported confirm in The effect of marling will be much lessened by almost every particular the chemical powers before the soil being kept under exhausting cultivation. attributed to calcareous manures, by the theory of Such were the circumstances under which we may their action. It is admitted that causes and effects suppose that marl was tried and abandoned many were not always proportioned—and that some- years ago, in the case referred to in page 37. Protimes trivial apparent contradictions were present- ceeding upon the false supposition that marl was ed. But this is inevitable, even with regard to to enrich by direct action, it is most probable that the best established doctrines, and the most per- it was applied to some of the poorest and most fect processes in agriculture. There are many exhausted land, for the purpose of giving the mapractices universally admitted to be beneficial- nure a "fair trial." The disappointment of such yet there are none, which are not found sometimes ill-founded expectations, was a sufficient reason useless, or hurtful, on account of some other at- for the experiment not being repeated, or being tendant circumstance, which was not expected, scarcely ever referred to again, except as evidence and perhaps not discovered. Every application of of the worthlessness of marl. Yet with proper calcareous earth to soil, is a chemical operation on views of the action of this manure, this experia great scale: decompositions and new combina- ment might at first, have as well proved the early tions are produced, and in a manner generally con-efficacy and value of marl, as it now does its duforming to the operator's expectations. But other rability. and unknown agents may sometimes have a share in the process, and thus cause unlooked for results. Such differences between practice and theory have sometimes occurred in my use of calcareous manures (as may be observed in some of the reported experiments) but they have neither been frequent, uniform, nor important. When acid soils are equally poor, the increase of the first crop from marling will be greater on sandy, than on clay soils; though the latter, by heavier dressings and longer time, may ultimately become the best land, at least for wheat and for grass. The more acid the growth of any soil is, or would be, if suffered to stand, the more increase Under like circumstances in other respects, the of crop may be expected from marl; which is dibenefit derived from marling will be in proportion rectly the reverse of the effects of putrescent mato the quantity of vegetable or other putrescent mat-nures. The increase of the first crop on worn acid ter given to the soil. It is essential that the cultivation should be mild, and that no grazing be permitted on poor lands. Wherever farm-yard manure is used, the land should be marled heavily, and if the marl is applied first so much the better. The one manure cannot act by fixing the other, except so far as they are in contact, and both well mixed with the soil. soil, I have never known under fifty per cent., and more often is as much as one hundred-and the improvement continues to increase, under mild tillage, to three or four times the original product of the land. [See Exp. 11, page 46, and Exp. 4 and 6.] In this, and other general statements of effects, I suppose the land to bear not more than two grain crops in four years, and not to be subOn galled spots, from which all the soil has been jected to grazing-and that a sufficient cover of washed, and where no plant can live, the applica-marl has been laid on for use, and not enough to tion of marl alone is utterly useless. Putrescent manures alone would there have but little effect, unless in great quantity, and would soon be all lost. But marl and putrescent matter together serve to form a new soil, and thus both are brought into useful action: the marl is made active, and the putrescent manure permanent. The only perfect cures that I have been able to make, at one operation, of galls produced upon a barren subsoil, were by applying a heavy dressing of both calcareous and putrescent manures together: and this method may be relied on as certainly effectual. But though a fertile soil may thus be created, and fixed durably on galls otherwise irreclaimable, the cost will generally exceed the value of the land recovered, from the great quantity of putrescent matter required. Much of our acid hilly land, cause disease. It is true, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to fix that proper medium, varying as it may on every change of soil, of situation, and of the kind of marl. But whatever error may be made in the proportion of marl applied, let it be on the side of light dressing, (except where putrescent manures are also laid on, or designed to be laid on before the next course of crops begins) and if less increase of crop is gained to the acre, the cost and labor of marling will be lessened in a still greater proportion. If, after tillage has served to mix the marl well with the soil, sorrel should still show to any extent, it will sufficiently indicate that not enough marl had been applied, and that it may be added to, safely and profitably. If the nature of the soil, its condition and treatment, and the strength of the marl, all were known, it wo!! be easy to direct the amount of a suitable dressing: but without knowing these circumstances, it will be safest to give two hundred and fifty, or three hundred bushels to the acre of worn acid soils, and at least twice as much to newly cleared, or well manured land. Besides avoiding danger, it is more profitable to marl lightly at first on weak lands. If a farmer can carry out only ten thousand bushels of marl in a year, he will derive more product, and confer a greater amount of improvement, by spreading it over forty acres of the land intended for his next crop, than on twenty: though the increase to the acre, would probably be greatest in the latter case. By the lighter dressing, the land of the whole farm will be marled, and be storing up vegetable matter for its progressive improvement, in half the time that it could be marled at double the rate. The greater part of the calcareous earth applied at one time cannot begin to act as manure before several years have passed, owing to the coarse state of many of the shells, and the want of thoroughly mixing them with the soil. Therefore, if enough marl is applied to obtain its full effect on the first course of crops, there will certainly be too much afterwards. Perhaps the greatest profit to be derived from marling, though not the most apparent, is on such soils as are full of wasting vegetable matter. Here the effect is mostly preservative, and the benefit and profit may be great, even though the increase of crop may be very inconsiderable. Putrescent manure laid on any acid soil, or the natural vegetable cover of those newly cleared, without marl, would soon be lost, and the crops reduced to one-half, or less. But when marl is previously applied, this waste of fertility is prevented; and the estimate of benefit should not only include the actual increase of crop caused by marling, but as much more as the amount of the diminution, which would otherwise have followed. Every intended clearing of woodland, and especially of that under a second growth of pines, ought to be marled before cutting down-and it will be still better, if it can be done several years before. If the application is delayed until the new land is brought under cultivation, though much putrescent matter will be saved, still more must be wasted. By using marl some years before obtaining a crop from it, as many more successive growths of leaves will be converted to useful manure, and fixed in the soil-and the increased fertility will more than compensate for the delay. By such an operation, we make a loan to the soil, with a distant time for payment, but on ample security, and at a high rate of compound interest. Some experienced cultivators have believed that the most profitable way to manage pine old fields, when cleared of their second growth, was to cultivate them every year, until worn out-because, as they said, such land would not last much longer, no matter how mildly treated. This opinion, which seems so absurd, and in opposition to all the received rules for good husbandry, is considerably supported by the properties which are here ascribed to such soils. When these lands are first cut down, an immense quantity of vegetable matter is accumulated on the surface-which, notwithstanding its accompanying acid quality, is capable of making two or three crops nearly or quite as good as the land was ever able to bring. But as the soil has no power to retain this vegetable matter, it will begin rapidly to decompose and waste, as soon as exposed to the sun, and will be lost, except so much as is caught while escaping, by the roots of growing crops. The previous application of marl, would make it profitable in these, as well as other cases, to adopt a mild and meliorating course of tillage. Less improvement will be obtained by marling worn soils of the kind called "free light land," than other acid soils which originally produced much more sparingly. The early productiveness of this kind of soil, and its rapid exhaustion by cultivation, at first view seem to contradict the opinion, that durability and the ease of improving by putrescent manures are proportioned to the natural fertility of the soil. But a full consideration of circumstances will show that no such contradiction exists. In defining the term natural fertility, it was stated that it should not be measured by the earliest products of a new soil, which might be either much reduced, or increased, by temporary causes. The early fertility of free light land is so rapidly destroyed, as to take away all ground for consider ing it as fixed in, and belonging to the soil. It is like the effect of dung on the same land afterwards, which throws out all its effect in the course of one or two years, and leaves the land as poor as before. But still it needs explanation why so much productiveness can at first be exerted by any acid soil, as in those described in the 14th experiment. The cause may be found in the following reasons. These soils, and also their subsoils, are principally composed of coarse sand, which makes them of more open texture than best suits pine, and (when rich enough) more favorable to other trees, the leaves of which have no natural acid, and therefore decompose more readily. As fast as the fallen leaves rot, they are of course exposed to wastebut the rains convey much of their finer parts down into the open soil, where the less degree of heat retards their final decomposition. Still this enriching matter is liable to be further decomposed, and to final waste: but though continually wasting, it is also continually added to by the rotting leaves above. The shelter of the upper coat of unrotted leaves, and the shade of the trees, cause the first, as well as the last stages of decomposition, to proceed slowly, and to favor the mechanical process of the products being mixed with the soil. But there is no chemical union of the vegetable matter with the soil. When the land is cleared, and opened by the plough, the decomposition of all the accumulated vegetable matter is hastened by the increased action of sun and air, and in a short time converts every thing into food for plants. This abundant supply suffices to produce two or three fine crops. But now, the most fruitful source of vegetable matter has been cut off--and the soil is kept so heated (by its open texture) as to be unable to hold enriching matters, even if they were furnished. The land soon becomes poor, and must remain so, as long as these causes operate, even though cultivated under the mildest rotation. When the transient fertility of such a soil is gone, its acid qualities (which were before concealed in some measure by so much enriching matter,) become evident. Sorrel and broom grass cover the land--and if allowed to stand, pines will take complete possession, because the poverty of the soil leaves them no rival to contend with. Marling deepens cultivated sandy soils, even lower than the plough may have penetrated. This was an unexpected result, and when first observed, seemed scarcely credible. But this effect also is a consequence of the power of calcareous earth to fix manures. As stated in the foregoing paragraph, the soluble and finely divided particles of rotted vegetable matters are carried by the rains below the soil: but as there is no calcareous earth there to fix them, they must again rise in a gaseous form, after their last decomposition, unless previously taken up by growing plants. But after the soil is marled, calcareous as well as putrescent matter is carried down by the rains as far as the soil is open enough for them to pass. This will always be as deep as the ploughing has been, and in loose earth, somewhat deeper-and the chemical union formed between these different substances, serves to fix both, and thus increases the depth of the soil. This effect is very different from the deepening of a soil by letting the plough run into the barren subsoil. If by this mechanical process, a soil of only three inches is increased to five, as much as it gains in depth, it loses in richness. But when a marled soil is deepened gradually, its dark color and apparent richness is increased, as well as its depth. Formerly singlehorse ploughs were used to break all my acid soils, and even they would often turn up subsoil. The average depth of soil on old land did not exceed three inches, nor two on the newly cleared. Even before marling was commenced, my ploughing had generally sunk into the subsoil-and since 1825, most of this originally thin soil has required three mules, or two good horses to a plough, to break the necessary depth. The soil is now from five to seven inches deep generally, from the joint operation of marling and deepening the ploughing a little in the beginning of every course of crops. How destructive to the power of soil this depth of ploughing would have been, without marling, may be inferred from the continued decrease of the crop, through four successive courses of a very mild rotation, on the spot kept without marl in experiment 10. Yet the depth of ploughing there did not exceed six inches, and depths of nine and even twelve inches were tried, without injury, on parts of the adjacent marled land. a moist climate. Indian corn does not need more time for maturing than our summers afford (except on the poorest land,) and can sustain much drought without injury; and therefore is less aided by these qualities of marled land. Most (if not all) the different plants of the pea kind, and all the varieties of clover, derive such remarkable benefit from marling, that it must be caused by some peculiarity in the nature of those plants. Perhaps a large portion of calcareous earth is necessary as part of their food, to aid in the formation of the substance of plants, as well as to preserve their healthy existence. On acid soils without manure it is scarcely possible to raise red clover-and even with every aid from putrescent manure, the crop will be both uncertain and unprofitable. The recommendation of this grass as part of a general system of cultivation and improvement, by the author of Arator, is sufficient to prove that his improvements were made on soils far better than such as are general. Almost every zealous cultivator and improver (in prospect) of acid soil has been induced to attempt clover culture, either by the recommendations of writers on this grass, or by the success witnessed on better constituted soils elsewhere. The utmost that has been gained by any of these numerous efforts, has been sometimes to obtain one, or at most two mowings, of middling clover, on some very rich lot, which had been prepared in the most perfect manner by the previous cultivation of tobacco. Even in such situations, this degree of success could only be obtained by the concurrence of the most favorable seasons. Severe cold, and sudden alternations of temperature in winter and spring, and the spells of hot and dry weather which we usually have in summer, were alike fatal to the growth of clover, on so unfriendly a soil. The few examples of partial success never served to pay for the more frequent failures and losses; and a few years' trial would convince the most ardent, or the most obstinate advocate for the clover husbandry, that its introduction on the great body of land in Lower Virginia, was absolutely impossible. Still the general failure was by common consent attributed to any thing but the true cause. There was always some reason offered for each particular failure, sufficient to produce it, and but for which, (it was supposed) a crop might have been raised Either the young plants were Besides the general benefit which marling killed by freezing soon after first springing from causes equally to all crops, by making the soils the seed—or a drought occurred when the crop they grow on richer and more productive, there was most exposed to the sun, by reaping the shelare other particular benefits which affect some tering crop of wheat-or native and hardy weeds plants more than others. For example, marling overran the crop-and all such disasters were supserves to make soils warmer, and thereby hastens posed to be increased in force, and rendered genethe ripening of every crop, more than would take rally fatal, by our sandy soil, and hot and dry sumplace on the like soils, it made equally produc-mers. But after the true evil, the acid nature of tive by other than calcareous manures. This the soil, is removed by marling, clover ceases to be quality of marled land is highly important to cotton, as our summers are not long enough to mature the later pods. Wheat also derives especial benefit from the warmth thus added to the soil: it is enabled better to withstand the severe cold of winter; and even the short time by which its ripening is forwarded by marling, serves very much to lessen the danger of the crop from rust. Wheat also profits by the absorbent power of marled land, (by which sands acquire, to some extent, the best qualities of clays,) though less so than clover and other grasses that flourish best in a feeble exotic. It is at once naturalized on our soil, and is able to contend with rival plants, and to undergo every severity and change of season, as safely as our crops of corn and wheat-and offers to our acceptance the fruition of those hopes of profit and improvement from clover, with which heretofore we have only been deluded. After much waste of seed and labor, and years of disappointed efforts, I abandoned clover as utterly hopeless. But after marling the fields on which the raising of clover had been vainly attempted, there arose from its scattered and feeta remains, a growth which served to prove that its cultivation would then be safe and profitable. It has since been gradually extended nearly over all the fields. It will stand well, and maintain a healthy growth on the poorest marled land: but the crop is too scanty for mowing, or perhaps for profit of any kind, on most sandy soils, unless aided by gypsum. Newly cleared lands yield better clover than the old, though the latter may produce as heavy grain crops. The remarkable crops of clover raised on very poor clay soils, after marling, have been already described. This grass, even without gypsum, and still more if aided by that manure may add greatly to the improving power of marl: but it will do more harm than service, it' we greedily take from the soil too large a share of the supply of putrescent matter which it affords. ty acres can generally be both marled and tilled, as cheaply as one hundred can be tilled without marling; and the fifty will produce as much as the hundred, in the first course of crops, and much more afterwards. That rotation of crops which gives most vegetable matter to the soil, is best to aid the effect of marl recently applied. The four-shift rotation is convenient in this respect, because two or three years of rest may be given in each course of the rotation at first, upon the poorest land; and the number of exhausting crops may be increased, first to two, then to three in the rotation, as the soil advances to its highest state of productiveness. After marling, clover should be sown, and gypsum on the clover. On poor, though marled land, of course only a poor growth of clover can be expected: but wherever other manures are given, and especially if gypsum is found to act well, the Some other plants less welcome than clover, are equally favored by marling. Greensward, blue grass, wire grass, and partridge pea, will soon in-crop of clover becomes a most important part of crease so as to be not less impediments to tillage, than evidences of an entire change in the character and power of the soil. If the foregoing views may be confided in, the general course most proper to pursue in using calcareous manures may thence be deduced without difficulty. But as I have found, since the publication of the first edition of this essay, that many persons still ask for more special directions to guide their operations, and as all such difficulties may not be entirely obviated even by the more full details now given, I will here add the following directions, at the risk of their being considered superfluous. These directions, like all the foregoing reasoning, may apply generally, if not entirely, to the use of all kinds of calcareous manures, and to soils in various regions: but to avoid too wide a range, I shall consider them as applied particularly to the poor lands, and to the fossil shells, or marl, of the tide-water region, and addressed to persons who are just commencing their improvements. As the cheapest mode of furnishing vegetable matter to land intended to be marled and cultivated, no grazing should be permitted. It is best to put the marl on the grass previous to ploughing the field for corn, as the early effect of this manure is greatest when it has been placed in contact with the vegetable matter. But this advantage is not so great as to induce the ploughing to be delayed, or to stop the marling after that operation. When the marl is spread upon the ploughed surface, it can be better mixed with the soil by the cultivation of the crop-and this advantage in some measure compensates for the loss of that which would have been obtained from an earlier application on the sod. If marl is ploughed in, it should not be so deeply as to prevent its being mixed with the soil, speedily and thoroughly, by the subsequent tillage. To make sure of equal distribution, the marl should be spread regularly over the surface. From neglect in this respect, a dressing of marl is often too thin in many places to have its proper effect, and in others, so thick as to prove injurious, Hence it is, that marl-burnt stalks of corn, and tufts of sorrel are sometimes seen on the same acre. After the first year, the farmer may generally marl fast enough to keep ahead of his cultivation: and even though he should reduce the space of his tillage to one-half, it will be best for him not to put an acre in corn without its being marled. Fif the improvement by marling. Without clover, and without returning the greater part of its product to the soil, the great value of marling will not be seen. A small proportion of the clover may be used as food for cattle-and in a few years this small share will far exceed all the grass that the fields furnished before marling, and the limitation of grazing. What is at first considered as lessening the food of grazing stock, and their products, within a few years becomes the source of a far more abundant supply. During the first few years of marling, but little attention can (or ought to) be given to making putrescent manures, because the soil much more needs calcareous manure-and three acres may generally be supplied with the latter, as cheaply as one with the former. But putrescent manures cannot any where be used to so much advantage, as upon poor soils made calcareous: and no farmer can make and apply vegetable matter as manure to greater profit than he who has marled his poor fields, and can then withdraw his labor from applying the more to the less profitable manure. After the farm has been marled over at the light rate recommended at first, every effort should be made to accumulate and apply vegetable manures-and with their grad.al extension over the fields, a second application of marl may be made, making the whole quantity in both the first and second marling 500 or 600 bushels to the acre, or even more, which would have been hurtful if given at first, but which will now be not only harmless, but necessary to fix and retain so much putrescent and nutritive matter in the soil. If the course here advised is pursued on poor and acid soils, the products will be generally doubled in the first course of the rotation-often in the first crop immediately following the marling: and the original product may be expected to be tripled by the third return of the rotation. This will be from merely applying marl in sufficient (and not excessive) quantities, and giving the land two years rest in four, without grazing. But with the aid of farm-yard and other putrescent manures, and of clover, both of which should be largely in use during the second course of crops, still greater returns may be obtained. When such statements as these are made, the question naturally occurs to the reader, "Has the writer himself met with so much success, and what has been the actual result of his labors in general, men. in the business so strongly recommended?" This times as much. Hall's scheme for cultivating question I have no right to shrink from, although corn was a stimulus exactly suited to their leththe answer to be given fully, will be objectionable, argic state: and that impudent Irish impostor from the egotism inseparable from such details, found many steady old-fashioned farmers willing which are certainly not worth being thus presented to pay for his directions for making five hundred to public notice, and which are called for only be- barrels of corn, with only the hand labor of two cause silence on this head might be considered as operating against the general tenor of this essay. It The products and profits derived from the use of will be sufficient here to state generally, that my marl as presented in the preceding pages, considaverage profits from marling, and the increased erable as they are, have been kept down, or lessenfertility derived from it, have not been as great as ed in amount, by my then want of experience, and are promised above, nor such as might be expected ignorance of the danger of injudicious applications. from the most successful experiments of which the My errors may at least enable others to avoid simresults have been reported-and for these reasons. ilar losses, and thereby to reach equal profits with 1st. The greater part of my land was not of soil half the expense of time and labor. But are we the best adapted to be improved by marling. 2nd. to consider even the greatest increase of product Having every thing to learn, and to prove by trial, that has been yet gained in a few years after marlmuch of my labor was lost uselessly, or spent in ing, as showing the full amount of improvement excessive and injurious applications. 3d. The and profit to be derived? I think not: and if we fitness given to the soil by marl to produce clover may venture to leave the sure ground of practical was not known until long after that auxiliary to experience, and look forward to what is promised improvement ought to have been in full use. 4th. by the theory of the operation of calcareous maFrom the want of labor and capital to use both nures, we must anticipate future crops far exceedcalcareous and putrescent manures, the collecting ing what have yet been obtained. To this, the and applying of the latter were almost entirely ready objection may be opposed, that the sandineglected as long as there was full employment ness of the greater part of our lands will always in marling. And 5th. That general bad practical prevent their being raised to a high state of promanagement, which I have to admit has marked ductiveness-and particularly, that no care, nor all my business, has of course also affected inju-improvement can make heavy crops of wheat riously this important branch-though in a less on such soils. This very general opinion is far degree, because it was as much as possible under from being correct—and as the error is important, my personal and close attention. With all these it may be useful to offer some evidence in support drawbacks to complete success, I am able to state of the great value to which sandy soils may arthe following general results of my operations. rive. Omitting the land on Coggin's Point farm not susceptible of any considerable or profitable improvement from marling, the great body of the farm, has been tripled in productive power since 1818, when my first experiment was made. Particular bodies of soil now produce fourfold the former amount without any other kind of manure: and the whole farm including the parts least improved as well as the most, and allowing for the increase of extent, will now make more than double of its best product before marling. We are so accustomed to find sandy soils poor, that it is difficult for us to connect witli them the idea of fertility, and still less of durability. Yet British agriculturists, who were acquainted with clays and clay loams, of as great value, and as well managed under tillage, as any in the world, speak in still higher terms of certain soils, which are even more sandy than most of ours. For example-"Rich sandy soils, however," says Sir John Sinclair, "such as those of Frodsham in Cheshire, are invaluable. They are cultivated at a moderWith all the increase of products that I have ate expense; and at all times have a dry soundascribed to marling, the heaviest crops stated may ness, accompanied by moisture, which secures ex * Roappear inconsiderable to farmers who till soils more cellent crops, even in the dryest summers." favored by nature. Corn yielding twenty-five or bert Brown, (one of the very few who has dethirty bushels to the acre, is doubled by many nat-served the character of being both an able writer, ural soils in the western states; and ten or twelve and a successful practical cultivator,) says-"Perbushels of wheat, will still less compare with thehaps a true sandy loam incumbent on a sound subproduct of the best limestone clay land. The cul- soil, is the most valuable of all soils." Young, tivators of our poor region, however, know that when describing the soils of France,in his agricultusuch products, without any future increase, would ral survey of that country, in several places speaks be a prodigious addition to their present gains. in the highest terms of different bodies of light or Still it is doubtful whether these rewards are suffi- sandy soils, of which the following example, of ciently high to tempt many of my countrymen the extensive district which he calls the plain of speedily to accept them. The opinions of many the Garonne, will be enough to quote: "It is enfarmers have been so long fixed, and their habitstered about Creisensac, and improves all the are so uniform and unvarying, that it is difficult to way to Montauban and Toulouse, where it is excite them to adopt any new plan of improve- "one of the finest bodies of fertile soil that can any ment, except by promises of profits so great, that "where be seen:"- "Through all this plain, an uncommon share of credulity would be reces-" wherever the soil is found excellent, it consists sary to expect their fulfilment. The net profits of marling, if estimated at twenty or even fifty per cent. per annum, on the expense, forever-or the assurance by good evidence, of doubling the crops of a farm in ten years or less-will scarcely attract the attention of those who would embrace without any scrutiny, a plan that promised five "usually of a deep mellow friable sandy loam, "with moisture sufficient for any thing; much of "it is calcareous." The soil of Belgium so cele * Code of Agriculture, p. 12. riculture" in Edin. Ency. Brown's Treatise on Agriculture, p. 218, of "Ag Young's Tour in France. |