renewed. England formed a coalition with other countries for his overthrow, for he now sought nothing less than universal empire. To subdue England was his dearest wish, but on the sea he could never match her, as was proved in Nelson's final victory of Trafalgar; but in the same year Napoleon gained one of his most celebrated victories at Austerlitz, where he defeated the Austrians and Russians. Ten months afterwards he laid the power of Prussia low at the battle of Jena. Unable to invade England, he strove to ruin her com merce. By 1808 he had reached the summit of his grandeur. With the exception of Russia, almost the whole of continental Europe had no choice but to submit to his dictation; and he gave away crowns like playthings. But in this year began the Peninsular War. Spain made an effort to throw off his yoke, and England sent an army to her aid, under the Duke of Wellington-then Sir Arthur Wellesley-who landed in Portugal. The next year the British troops in Spain were obliged to retreat before greatly superior numbers, yet they were victorious at the battle of Corunna, where their brave commander, Sir John Moore, was killed. A few months later, Wellington won the famous victory of Talavera. Year after year on Spanish soil, the French arms were opposed and thwarted by him with a foresight and skill which placed him in the first rank as a soldier, for the difficulties with which he had to contend might well have been deemed insurmountable. Europe took heart again, finding that there was one general whom Napoleon could not vanquish. In 1812 the Emperor's insatiable ambition led him to invade Russia with an enormous army of about half a million men. The Russian troops retired before him, and he penetrated as far as Moscow, where he looked for rest and shelter; but the Russians fled from the city after setting it on fire. Totally unprepared for this, Napoleon was soon compelled to retreat in the bitter snow and frost of a Russian winter, harassed by implacable foes. His soldiers perished by tens of thousands, and only a remnant of the Grand Army survived those few weeks of intensest misery. All Europe was now ready to unite against the common foe. Germany-trampled under his foot-rose in desperate resolve, and at last Napoleon sustained a disastrous defeat from the allies at the battle of Leipsic. Meantime Wellington had completely routed the French at Vittoria; and soon he crossed the Pyrenees, and worsted them on their own ground four times. Napoleon refusing to accept the terms offered by the allies, they entered Paris in March, 1814. He then abdicated, and was banished to Elba, while Louis XVIII. was acknowledged king. Twelve months only passed, and Napoleon was again in France, welcomed by the soldiery, and the king fled before him. The allies mustered once more, and under the Duke of Wellington, on the world-famous field of Waterloo, overthrew the might of Napoleon for ever. He was sent a prisoner for life to St. Helena. Louis XVIII. was succeeded in 1824 by Charles X., who lost his crown in the revolution of 1830, brought about chiefly by his attempts to shackle the press. The unwise restrictions of Louis Philippe led to his being hastily dethroned by an impatient people, in 1848. A republic was proclaimed, of which Louis Napoleon was elected president, but he made himself emperor in 1853. In 1870 he attacked Germany, but in a month's time was obliged to surrender at Sedan, with all his army. A republic was again established in France; but the war continued until January, 1871, when Paris, after a four months' siege, accepted the terms offered to her, and this sanguinary conflict ended. QUESTIONS.-What is meant by the "Reign of Terror" ? Who were the leading Revolutionists? Name their most illustrious victims. Who was Napoleon Bonaparte? Give a sketch of his career. ENGLAND UNDER THE FOUR GEORGES. THE rebellion on behalf of the First Pretender is the most conspicuous event in the time of George I. ; but far more important are two of the legislative measures of his reign: namely, the Septennial Bill, by which the longest duration of a parliament was fixed at seven years instead of three; and the Mutiny Act, still passed annually, by which parliament year by year sanctions the maintenance of a standing army. The year 1720 witnessed the failure of that mixture of "knavery and madness," the South Sea scheme. This was a plan for trading to the Pacific, of which its promoters circulated such extravagant reports, that the Government granted them great privileges, anticipating the payment of the National Debt by their success. A large portion of the community became crazy on the subject, and shares in the South Sea Company were bought at fabulous prices. The infection spread, and trading ventures of all descriptions were set on foot, but they ended in widespread ruin and misery. Under George II. occurred the rising on behalf of the Young Pretender, the conquest of Canada, and the beginning of the British empire in India; but it is rather of matters connected with everyday life that we would speak here. Under the first two Georges dress was very elaborate. We are told of coats of flowered velvet, and of cloth trimmed with gold or silver lace, and shoes with diamond buckles. Wigs were much worn, those made of white and grey hair being particularly prized. Ladies continued to wear patches on their faces, and by putting the patch on the right or left side of the forehead they showed to which political party they belonged. During part of this period the hoop petticoats attained an enormous size. There was much profligacy, coarseness, and frivolity N among the higher classes, which, as is often the case, descended to those below them. Duelling, prize-fighting, gambling, bull-baiting, and cock-fights were common. Education generally was in a very low state, even among ladies and gentlemen; and the prevailing ignorance showed itself in many forms of quackery and superstition. There was much disorder in the streets, for even London had no police-only a few watchmen; while, at night, dim lamps glimmered through the darkness in the narrow, filthy streets, for there was no gas till 1807. Thieves and ruffians roamed about in well-armed gangs, committing robberies and abominable outrages, so that wayfarers were often in great peril. Belsize House, a scandalous place of fashionable amusement at Hampstead, advertised in 1720, among other attractions, that there were "twelve stout fellows, completely armed, to patrol between London and Belsize, to prevent the insults of highwaymen or footpads which may infest the road." Through the whole of this period the press-gang, by forcibly recruiting the navy, often caused much misery; and gin-drinking was terribly prevalent for a while among the lower orders of society; but in spite of all drawbacks, the reign of George II. was a time of general physical prosperity. A few years after his accession, John and Charles Wesley and George Whitefield began their career of usefulness, and were the authors of a great reformation in the national morality and religion, when both were at a very low ebb. In 1750 a Bill was passed to amend the marriage laws. Before this was done, a clergyman could marry people at any place or at any time, the Fleet prison being especially chosen for the purpose by disreputable ministers confined for debt. The dreadful Porteous riot at Edinburgh occurred in 1736. Some tumult having followed the execution of a smuggler, for whom much sympathy was felt, Captain Porteous needlessly gave orders to the city-guard to fire, and persons who were merely onlookers were killed or wounded. The fury thus excited was unbounded. Porteous was tried and found guilty of murder, but a strong suspicion existing that he would be pardoned, a great multitude disarmed the city-guard, seized the unhappy captain in his prison, hung him on the spot where the smuggler had suffered, and then quietly dispersed. Persons of all classes were concerned in this terrible affair. But the worst outbreak of the kind was in the NoPopery riots of 1780, when George III. was king. Parliament had abolished some of the cruel laws affecting Roman Catholics, and this just measure excited the fears of misguided Protestants who, under the leadership of Lord George Gordon, a half-crazy enthusiast, held meetings to procure its repeal, and to organize a great procession to the House of Commons. Ruffians of all kinds helped to swell the gathering, and a most disgraceful scene ensued, which lasted for about a week. Prisons were broken open and criminals released; the chapels and houses of Roman Catholics were pillaged and burnt, and thirty-six fires were blazing at one time. These enormities were at last put down by the military, nearly 500 persons being killed or wounded. The sixty years' reign of George III. is a memorable epoch. The French revolution, the tremendous struggle with Napoleon, the loss of the American colonies, the rebellion in Ireland, the union of her parliament with that of Great Britain, and the abolition of the English slave-trade were some of its notable events; while the pages which record its history are crowded with the names of illustrious statesmen, orators, and poets, of men eminent in the walks of art, science, and literature, in military and naval skill. The advance in mechanics kept pace with other progress. Year by year fresh fields were found for the |