bines with alkalis, metallic oxides, or any other conduct to new and higher proofs of the docsubstance. In nitric acid, we have nitrogen trine before us. In ascertaining the nearly 14, and 5 equivalents of oxygen, 40-giving identical atomic volume of certain groups of for the atomic or combining weight of the acid elementary bodies closely allied in chemical 54, the number which actually governs all its properties and found generally in close associcombinations. The application of this rule-ation in nature, MM. Kopp and Schröder, to and as expressing a great natural law we whom chiefly we owe these researches, are might expect it to be so-seems to have no evidently on a path which leads beyond our other exceptions than those which depend on present view and promises access to yet unour own imperfect knowledge. The examples trodden fields of science. of it furnished by the analysis and synthesis of organie bodies are much more complex in kind, and therefore less fitted for illustration; but, as we shall presently see, they attest in a wonderful manner the truth and universality of the principle.

Another point remains to be noticed in our estimate of what was attained at this period of the inquiry. Hydrogen, as we have seen, is taken as the unit in the scale of atomic weights. What proof have we that it is really such? Or what proof that there may not be two. Stopping a moment here, let us see pre- atoms of hydrogen present in each atom of cisely how we are to define the knowledge water, as we have two volumes by measure of thus far gained. One essential point will al- hydrogen combining with one of oxygen to ready be understood, viz. that in speaking of form this body? In admitting that the concluatomic weights, it is only the relative weight sion is not one of certainty, we must add that of the atoms, or smallest combining proportion the doubt is less important than it may seem; of different substances, which enters into the for if the unit were so altered as to compel a question. Of their positive weight in relation change of number for other bodies in the scale, to any known quantities we are absolutely ig- the relations of weight and the combining pronorant; nor has any path been disclosed portions would remain precisely as before. through which such a result may hereafter be The numerical expression of the series is alreached. We can hardly say that the value tered, but nothing besides. We may further of the discovery is less from this abatement of notice here a remarkable fact (tending strongits extent, since for all purposes of science the ly to confirm an original view of Dr. Prout's), relative weights are always the object sought that out of Kopp's table of 54 elementary for, and carried into use. Again, these dis-atomic weights, 22 are integral multiples of hycoveries teach nothing certain as to the figure drogen; and several others almost exact mulor absolute magnitude of these primitive atoms. tiples of 5, or half an equivalent of this eleDalton, indeed, was led by various considera-ment. Facts of this nature, even while still of tions to regard them as spherical, and to de-doubtful interpretation, are yet the exponents scribe and delineate them as such. But this, and indices of the general law which em however possible, is still speculative to our braces all.

which he depictured his groups of spherical atoms strengthened the belief that it was a rash recurrence to the tenets of an exploded philosophy.*

knowledge; and the facts in isomorphism, Reverting now to the history and progress which we shall speedily notice, might rather of these great discoveries, it must be stated suggest various primitive forms than that of the that Dalton's views, even thus ripe in proof, spherical atom alone. As respects the question did not find instant adoption in the scientific of magnitude, all that can be sought for with world. We have already alluded to his unany hope is the relative magnitude of those ele-couth and ineffective manner of propounding mentary parts; and this inquiry, though far them, whether by lectures or writing. The less simple and certain than that of relative very phraseology of atoms and atomic weights weights, has been pursued with much zeal and frightened timid reasoners away from the subsome success both by English and German ject; and the boldness of the diagrams by chemists, though under the form of comparison of atomic volumes rather than atomic diameters. The distinction here involved, and the general relation of volumes to other conditions of matter under the atomic theory, would have demanded further illustration had the limits and design of the article made it possible. We may briefly say, that the estimate by volumes, though never willingly acquiesced in by Dalton himself, fully confirms in every part the principles of the atomic theory; and as respects its particular application to the discovery of relative magnitudes, though the results are still neither certain nor complete, yet the numerical relations and analogies they already afford are very remarkable, and will probably

But the husk, however thick it

It was Dalton's opinion that no conception of this kind could be clearly grasped by the understanding, without some embodiment to the sight. The best sanction to the justice of his views is the of the most eminent chemists of the day, Dr. Hoffentire adoption of this manner of illustration by one mann; who, in his admirable lectures on Organic Chemistry at the Royal Institution, designated the most complex organic compounds by colored atomframe, that every change, whether by addition or ic symbols; so ingeniously disposed on a sliding subtraction of atoms, could be shown with the utmost facility.

able.

be, is always pierced through when truth lies | No adequate conception of Organic Chemis-
within the kernel. A few eminent Chemists, try in its actual state can be given by a bare
among whom Thomson, Wollaston, Gay Lussac, definition. It is as we have said elsewhere,
and Berzelius may especially be named, speed- the chemistry of vital products of matter
ily saw the value of the discovery, and applied organized under that mysterious power which
their own labors to verify and extend it. Dr. we term the vital principle, in default of more
Thomson's habitual zeal was quickened by exact understanding of this wonderful oper-
personal communication and friendship with ation of Providence in the world. Including
Dalton. Of Dr. Wollaston it was said that he the analyses of the innumerable bodies thus
would soon have made the discovery himself formed, and the examination of the endless
if Dalton had not done so; and the mathe- series of changes they undergo by mutual ac-
matical acuteness of his understanding, as well tion and substitution, this branch of science at-
as the direction and method of his chemical tains yet higher synthetic results; reprodue-
researches, might justify this belief, were it not ing artificially, by new combinations, some of
that a certain scepticism of mind perpetually those organic compounds, which were known
checked and impeded the efforts of which his to us before only through the occult chemistry
intellect was capable. His paper on super- of animal or vegetable life; and evolving
acid and sub-acid salts furnished much collat- from the same elements, under other condi
eral testimony to the truth of the doctrine, tions, new compounds, often of strange and
while his sliding scale of chemical equivalents potent quality, which are unknown but in this
offered a very ingenious instrument for its ap- creation of the laboratory. Of the former
plication to practical chemistry. In determin-class of products, urea, sugar, the oxalic, lactic,
ing by beautiful experiments the law of com- benzoic, succinic, and other acids, may be
bination of volumes in equal or multiple pro- taken as examples: of the latter, we may
portions, Gay Lussac superadded fresh evi- name Chloroform, as one of the most remark-
dence, better appreciated by others than by
Dalton himself: while Berzelius, in his North- In this vast circle of Organic Chemistry, we
ern laboratory, executed those numerous and find four great elements-oxygen, hydrogen,
admirable analyses, which, fulfilling in their nitrogen, and carbon-so far preponderating
results every condition of the atomic theory, in quantity and efficiency, that the 12 or 14
obtained for it the universal acquiescence of others combining with them in organic pro-
the scientific world. The tables he construct- ducts may be considered subordinate, even if
ed of atomic weights have required little in some part necessary. In the compounds of
change but that of enlargement. The beau- these four elements, from the simplest to those
tiful system of chemical formula which he de- of the greatest complexity, we find the most
vised, denoting these atomic relations, was perfect and admirable illustrations of the
speedily accepted by chemists and is now atomic doctrine. Number is here not merely
very generally employed.
a denotation of facts, but an instrument in
The remaining history of the progress of their discovery. Every condition and change
this discovery, as it comes down to our own may be defined by formulæ as rigidly exact as
time, cannot so easily be made clear to our a sum in arithmetic or a geometrical demon-
general readers. The labors of Chemists dur-stration; and in combinations which are so
ing this period have been not only vast and complex that each element entering into them
various, but more profound than heretofore in is present under some multiple of its weight,
the objects and methods of inquiry. Deriv-it is found that the addition or abstraction of a
ing impulse from the atomic discoveries, they single atom in the proportion of any one of
have carried these, as instruments, into parts
of science hitherto inaccessible to research,
fully attesting by their success the validity of
the means so employed. The whole domain
of Organic Chemistry may be said to be a re-
cent conquest thus obtained. The laws of
isomorphism, of isomerism, of atomic substi-
tution, have all been determined during the
same period by the genius and labors of Mits-
cherlich, Liebig, Dumas, and other foreign and
British chemists. Though it is impossible,
within our narrow space, to convey any true
idea of these abstruse and difficult researches,
we are bound to notice them so far as to show
how completely they are interwoven with the
atomic principle, and how thoroughly they il-
lustrate all its various workings in the natural
world.

them makes a notable, often a marvellous, dif-
ference in the nature of the compound. Some
of these results are so startling as to be almost
incredible, were the proof less certain than it
is.

There are cases where, the elements re-
maining the same, a slight numerical differ-
ence in the proportion of one or two of them
will change an edible substance into a deadly
poison. Atomic chemistry tells us what alter-
ation of parts here takes place : but physiology
is silent, or nearly so, as to the causes of this
wonderful difference of effect on the animal
economy. The analogy of fermentation, placed
before us by Liebig, is a striking one; but,
even if established, it little enlarges our posi-
tive amount of knowledge. The margin of

the unknown is scarcely less wide than it was

"before.

We have here before us the mutual actions

limited to the most simple and elementary view of the subject, these discoveries and While speaking of organic chemistry, we others closely associated with them (such as "must briefly advert to the doctrine of Com- Dumas's Law of Substitution, Gerhardt's Syspound Radicals, as indicating another proba- tem of Homologues, and the recent researches ble mode of atomic action in bodies. It may in Allotropy) would require much more copibe readily conceived, and is fully attested by ous illustration and detail. Even in our slight observation, that some combinations of atoms notice of them, it will be seen that they are are much more stable and tenacious than not merely confirmations of the atomic docothers; and we have, in what is called a com- trine; but deep inroads, by secure and cerpound radical, the union of different atoms tain paths, into regions of physical science, possessing sufficient stability to fulfil the part which have scarcely been reached before by of a single atom, or combining equivalent; and the boldest imagination or conjecture. We thus entering as a base into various combina- first contemplated these atomic elements as tions without losing its identity. Cyanogen, concerned in the various acts of chemical composed of one atom of nitrogen and two of affinity--in determining the union or separation carbon, may be taken as the simplest example of all bodies in fixed numerical proportions of of such compounds. We cannot, indeed, class measure or weight. We now regard them in this doctrine with the more certain conclusions what can scarcely be called higher relations, heretofore recorded, for the conditions of ex- because intimately connected with, and not periment are such that it is difficult to obtain more wonderful than the former; but still absolute proof. But even were its assumptions such as are less familiar to our knowledge. not strictly verified, the research still throws new light on the atomic system, and makes of the molecules of matter, whether simple or the circle of evidence more complete. compound, expressed not in common chemical The same may be said of those remarkable relations, but under geometric forms, indicatfacts which have been classed under the names ing probable differences in the primitive forms of Isomorphism and Isomerism-the discovery of the atoms themselves, and holding out respectively of Mitscherlich and Berzelius through such researches some hope that the and which direct us to the atomic constitution questions of magnitude and figure are not beof matter, as the sole means of explaining the yond our reach. Crystallization may almost phenomena. The term Isomorphism express- be defined as the conversion of atomic numes virtually the fact, that identity of crystal- bers into a material form and configuration. line form depends greatly on similarity of In all that vast variety and beauty of crystals, atomic composition. Certain chemical ele- giving splendor to our mineral cabinets, and ments admit of being grouped together, under which have been so admirably illustrated by such relations, that various combinations may the labors of Hauy, Mohr and Weiss, Wollasbe formed from among them, which crystallize ton, Brewster, Beudant, etc., we find proof of in the same geometric forms; and with this the primitive tendency of atoms to group further notable fact, that such isomorphous themselves in certain definite figures groups are closely and curiously analogous in build up, as it were, the crystalline fabric in other physical properties. While the law of mathematical lines and proportions. And to Isomorphism thus expounds to us the depen- this general law Mitscherlich has added the dence of like forms on corresponding numbers curious fact, that many crystals undergo, from of component atoms, the law of Isomerism simple exposure to heat, an entire change in discovers to us the many cases where the their interior structure, while the outward same elements, combined in the same pro- form and solidity remain unaltered; thus provportions, do nevertheless produce compounds ing that intestine motions of atoms may occur, having very different chemical properties. making the most important structural changes The several modifications of this phenomenon, in the crystal, and affecting even its optical prointeresting though they are, we have not room perties, without the slightest external manifestato notice; but the facts regarded generally tion. The same fact, of definite motions of parinvolve this remarkable result, that a differ- ticles within a solid, has now been observed ence may, and frequently does exist, in the under so many modifications, that it may be manner and results of the combination of received as one of the most striking proofs of atoms, absolutely identical in nature, number, the atomic constitution of bodies; and of the and relative proportion. tendency of all matter, through its atoms, to What might at first seem a contradiction assume those definite forms, of which crystals between these laws, is in fact an exposition of form the most perfect type and illustration. those many modes of molecular composition A few words we must still add regarding and change, to which, under modification by Allotropy. There has been some ambiguity other agents, are due all the endless varieties in the use of this word, in relation to Isomerof natural objects around us. Were we notism, Dimorphism, and other terms recently VOL. VIII. 46 adopted, to meet the various cases of atomic

DLXV.

LIVING AGE.

to

nate one

combination. But we refer to it here, as the the connection between the conditions and exponent of certain changes which may be ef- changes of atoms, whether in chemical or other fected in the physical and chemical properties combinations, and the influence of those great of various simple bodies, without the slightest imponderable agents, electricity, heat, and alteration of their substance by addition or light-and probably gravitation which we subtraction, and independently of crystalliza- know to be concerned, in one mode or another, tion, yet doubtless under some new arrange- in all these wonderful phenomena. In this rement and probably in each case a determi- search we lose that aid of numbers and proporof their component atoms. Phos- tions which gives validity to other parts of the phorus and sulphur both furnish examples of atomic doctrine, and are cast upon a sea of these allotropic conditions; but a much more speculation, where no line has ever yet touched striking one, admitting it to be fully attested, the ground. Nevertheless, the certainty that is the conversion of oxygen into Ozone through such a connection exists; that it is operative the medium of electricity. Seeing the propor- in every part of the material world; and that tion of oxygen we continually breathe-its the discovery of its nature would throw light relation to organic life in every form. and upon the darkest questions of physical science, the electrical actions and changes ever pervad- has led some of the most eminent philosophers ing the atmosphere around us, it is easy to un- of our time to frame hypotheses as to this rederstand the importance of this fact in its fu- lation between matter in its atomic conditions, ture relation to physiology as to every other and the elementary powers or forces denoted part of natural science. We would fain invite above. Our ignorance of the true nature of attention to this allotropic inquiry in general, the latter (even whether strictly material, or as a branch of physics less explored than it influences which we cannot define as such) ought to be. The mutual action and affinities perplexes the inquiry in the very outset of different atoms form the subject and science while it is further obscured by the doubt of Chemistry—those of like atoms have been whether heat, light, and electricity are really little examined, and are chiefly known to us distinct elements, or modified forms of some under the simple form of cohesion of parts. common principle of power. Electricity, on This cohesion itself is liable to incessant several accounts, has been generally taken as change from heat, electricity, and other exter- the foundation of the problem; and the genius nal agents. Every atom in the iron tube of the of Davy, Berzelius, Ampère, De la Rive, etc., Britannia bridge undergoes some alteration of applied to its solution in this form. Such ef place, when this vast fabric expands from heat forts, though failing of present success, require or contracts from cold. Every message of bat- to be recorded, as illustrative of the methods tle or diplomacy, of truth or of falsehood, which by which modern science seeks to attain its trembles over Europe along the electric chord, ends, even when proceeding upon hypothesis puts into motion and change each successive only. particle of the wire through which it travels It is strange and mortifying. yet neverwith such inconceivable velocity. What the theless in accordance with the light and shade nature of these changes may be, not even the of all human things that while true science boldest speculator can affirm. The principle is thus embracing in its progress every part of of Polarity, now so largely proved and applied in every part of physics, may reasonably be brought in to aid our conceptions, especially where electricity is assumed as the active power. And to this great principle, guided and governed as it is by mathematical laws, we may rightly look for the solution of many of the problems which still lie before us in the material world.*

the material world establishing facts, disclosing laws, and scrutinizing by mathematical methods even those actions and relations of matter which are inapproachable by the senses

there should exist simultaneously a series of delusions, in which error, credulity, and imposture are closely interwoven; yet usurping the form and phraseology of real science, and thus misleading many whose intellect in other The foregoing remarks bring us to a subject matters is acute and discriminative. We which, were we writing a treatise upon the would fain indulge the hope, recently exAtomic Theory, we could not forbear to notice pressed by one of our most eminent philosoin detail. This subject, one of the most ab-phers, that education may in the end provide struse and difficult in all physical science, is a remedy against these aberrations; but we *The late Dr. Prout made some advances towards this inquiry as to the mutual relations of like atoms. It has been taken up more recently by Mr. Brodie; who will continue, we trust, to apply his eminent ability as an experimentalist to its further prosecution. It is one of the researches which gives fairest promise of reducing the list of simple substances, by proving that some are only allotropic conditions of others-a manner of transmutation which may reasonably be expected from the science of our day.

still fear that as long as credulity remains a part of human character and temperament, there will never be wanting the agents and materials to work upon it. Our best guarantee lies in the knowledge that follies and impostures are in their nature ephemeral; while no fact of genuine science can ever disappear, except by merging in some higher and more general truth.

WASHINGTON IRVING'S CHRONICLES OF WOLFERT'S ROOST. 723

mist. The "prosperity" is American; but it has features common to all countries owning a well developed system of credit and discounts. The sensible advice is for all place and time.

From The Spectator. story of Count Horn, who was broken on the WASHINGTON IRVING'S CHRONICLES wheel for murder, under the Regent Orleans, OF WOLFERT'S ROOST.* and a sketch of Law and the Mississippi bubble, are very skilfully done; but the facts are ACCORDING to indications the greater por-well known, and they have no peculiarity betion of these papers should be new; but there yond excellent workmanship." A Time of is just now so much deception going on with Unexampled Prosperity," which introduces respect to American books, that it is only by the sketch of Law, shows Geoffrey Crayon in accident that one is able to tell whether they a new light-that of the sound political econoare reprints or a first publication. It is possible that Wolfert's Roost is a collection of fugitive pieces; or it may be a revised selection from the author's papers while he has yet spirit to make them- a child, as it were, of his old age. The following adventure is from" Ralph Be this as it may, it is a pleasant book. There Ringwood," and was a means of leading the is indeed nothing new in it, either as respects hero to quit home and seek his fortune: A subject, substance, or style; but neither is gentleman of Virginia with a turn for improvethere any falling off. There is as much ele-ment took it into his head that it would be a gance of diction, as graceful a description of public advantage to introduce a breed of mules, natural scenery, as grotesque an earnestness and accordingly he imported three jacks to in diablerie, and as quiet but as telling a satiric stock the neighborhood. But that part of the humor, as when Geoffrey Crayon first came country cared for nothing but "blood horses." before the English world, nearly forty years They looked on the proposed mesalliance as ago. In some points perhaps there is an im- the haughtiest of the old noblesse might have provement. In addition to greater mellow- regarded a marriage with a roturier. The ness, the writer's power of imparting interest patriotic improver had to repudiate his proto the dryness of antiquarian or traditional posed amalgamation, and, disavowing his donmatter, by seizing its essential points and pre-keys, turned them out on the common to shift senting them with a droll slyness, is more dis- as they could. Being considered in the light tinctly marked than heretofore. There is also of feræ naturæ, they were hunted by all the the pleasant feeling of meeting with an old schoolboys for a ride. friend, who surprisingly retains the spirit and vivacity of his youth, as well as of contrasting

the genuine manner with that of a host of imi-to their heels at sight of a schoolboy; and we They soon became so knowing, that they took were generally much longer in chasing than we were in riding them.

tators.

There is plenty of variety in the volume. In "Wolfert's Roost," and "Guests from GibSunday approached, on which I projected an bet Island," the reader meets Geoffrey Crayon equestrian excursion on one of these long-eared on perhaps his strongest ground. American steeds. As I knew the jacks would be in great scenery on the banks of the Hudson, enlivened demand on Sunday morning, I secured one overby the humors, manners, and superstitions of night, and conducted him home, to be ready for an the old Dutch settlers. In the autobiography early outset. But where was I to quarter him for of Governor Duval of Florida, under the title the night? I could not put him in the stable; our of "The Early Experiences of Ralph Ring- domain as Barbara was within doors, and would old black groom George was as absolute in that wood," there are some pictures of Virginian have thought his stable, his horses, and himself domestic life, shortly after Independence, and disgraced by the introduction of a jackass. I reof the old hunters' and settlers' ways and no-collected the smoke house,an out building appendtions in Ohio and Kentucky at the same pe-ed to all Virginian establishments for the smokriod. "The Knight of Malta" and its sequel ing of hams and other kinds of meat. So I got (with both of which we seem to be familiar), the key, put master Jack in, locked the door, reas well as several others, introduce the reader turned the key to its place, and went to bed, into European ghost stories, told with the writ-tending to release my prisoner at an early hour, er's wonted cleverness. "A Contented Man," before any of the family were awake. I was so and some sketches in Paris, written if not pub-catching the donkey, that I fell into a sound tired, however, by the exertions I had made in lished many years ago, exhibit Washington Ir- sleep, and the morning broke without my wakving's just but good natured appreciation of ing. the characters and manners of Europe. The Not so with dame Barbara, the housekeeper. As usual, to use her own phrase, "she was up Chronicles of Wolfert's Roost, and other Pa-before the crow put his shoes on," and bustled pers. By Washington Irving. Author's edition, (Constable's Miscellany of Foreign Literature. Volume IV.) Published by Constable and Co. Published in New York by G. P. Putnam and Co.

about to get things in order for breakfast. Her first resort was to the smoke house. Scarce had she opened the door, when master Jack, tired of his confinement, and glad to be released from