provided by some of the former teachers, and the lower by young routinists (routiniers) who had never enjoyed a high literary culture, and who, by continuous experimenting, hoped to acquire a certain practice of teaching. These positions, of so-called maîtres supplémentaires, et d'étude, served, in the absence of regular seminaries, as institutions for the preparation of the future teachers of the higher schools. Among the twenty schools for the training of teachers, five only had a sufficient number of professors, as many had only three professors, and three of them but one. Of the 92 Catholic gymnasium professors, none had visited a German University abroad; most had received their education in religious seminaries or in the decaying University of Cologne; a third of them finally had stepped right from the school-room into the professor's chair.

In order to improve the condition of the schools for the training of teachers, the collection of the arrears which several communities had to pay to their schools, according to budget duty, was zealously carried on, and a number of schools received considerable help and contributions from the treasury of the State. For the improvement of their internal condition, the Director of Public Instruction of the Lower-Rhine, Grasshof, afterwards consistorial school-counselor (1841,) issued a preliminary instruction to the effect, that an effort should be made to harmonize, if possible, the monachal system of instruction which, strangely mixed as it was with the Parisian University maxims, seemed to prevail still almost everywhere, and the ruling principles of the gymnasiums of the North of Germany; combining, as it were, the two. For that purpose, school and academic instruction should be kept apart; the Greek language and history should resume their respective places, and the usurpating foreign language be again replaced by the mother tongue. This was a hard task for the teachers; but it was only after such a beginning that the Department of Education could in future prepare and issue with any effect, general school regulations. The new spirit of reform had to proceed from single enlightened points, and the city of Cologne, before all other cities of the four Rhenish departments, was best calculated for such an attempt. Its antique dignity, its importance during the middle ages, its spiritual sway over all the Catholic countries around, and its literary taste, rendered it worthy to become the central point of high culture. This state of feeling was specially strengthened by two important facts, viz., its relatively larger number of suitable teachers, and the ever growing desire of the inhabitants to do away with French forms in its colleges. When the finances so badly administered by the existing schoolcommission were at last regulated, a beginning was made in 1815 to bring about the organization of the new Gymnasium, which was to take the place of both the colleges of the first and second degree. The applicants for professorships had to pass a severe examination, but all attempts to fill the higher chairs with capable men of the Catholic persuasion remained fruitless; the demands made upon the professors had come

considerably down, in order to enable the authorities to fill the gaps. This reform, by which true merit recovered its due rights, called back among the better teachers their enthusiasm for their profession, and the unity of purpose brought back again the unity of spirit, which had become lost among the teachers of the former institution. The schools for teachers of the Middle Rhine needed the same reform, but none of them possessed with the same receptibility for improvement, the necessary means to bring about the required change; it was even difficult to keep the colleges of Bonn and Coblentz from falling below their former condition.

As little as could be done in the latter part of 1815 for the teachers' schools, by way of donations to further the means of improvement; as little as the administration seemed disposed to take decided steps in the matter, helping only in extraordinary cases, nevertheless, and just at that time was the foundation laid for the internal improvement of these institutions, and that so much the deeper, as the sense of an earnest and thorough study of the classics had grown more vivid. The mathematics and history were gradually reinstated into their former rights; the study of the mother tongue, of its origin and progress, drove away the foreign language, and the old uniformity and superficial mode of study retired evermore into the background. Although this could only be said of a few enlightened points, and although in the smaller colleges and amidst the old teachers the old track of study was still in force, yet might it be considered as quite a gain, that such enlightened points, however few, existed in the province.

The gymnasium of Treves had lately been brought under Prussian administration, but was neither sufficiently endowed to defray expenses, nor possessed a sufficient corps of teachers. When through the Peace of Vienna, Prussia lost Lüttich, Aix-la-Chapelle claimed for the Northwestern part of its school-governments a greater attention from the administration; the gymnasium of that place was the only one from which a better spirit could emanate, and influence the smaller institutions of the same kind. The new gymnasium of Cologne, which by the accession of Director Franz Jos. Seber, 1815-19, (formerly professor at Aschaffenburg, afterwards professor of theology in the University of Bonn,) became at that time fully consolidated, verified the firmness of the ground upon which it had been erected. The new system of recitation carried out conscientiously in all its parts, according to the given regulations, the ardor and zeal equally obvious in both teachers and pupils, to enter not only into the outer form of these regulations but into their spirit also, the results of the last quarterly examination, the admirable discipline and order, the esteem and love the new Director had inspired in his colleagues and pupils, and the universal confidence he and his institution enjoyed amongst the public--all this gave sufficient proof of the excellence of the school, and secured its influence for laying the foundation of a still higher culture through the whole province.

The wisdom which presided over the reorganization of this and the other high-schools, namely, to reach gradually and not all at once, a higher degree of perfection, and to lay greater stress upon the capacity of individuals than upon mere rules, secured so much surer a passage from the old to the new, as by it the sunken rocks upon which they might have been wrecked were thus carefully avoided.

The sooner there was an inclination to favor a serious and thorough study of the ancients, the more the necessity for a firm foundation in this branch was accepted and recognized by the gymnasium, the more the conviction spread that in the vast domain of the mathematics, and in the inexhaustible depths of history, lay the rich stores for the mind and sensibilities of men, the more ardent became the desire for a University in the German sense of the word, a University from which alone teachers could be expected, that would carry out its views and would be imbued with its spirit. A petition to that effect was laid before the ministry, to urge upon the king the foundation of a University on a large scale in the city of Bonn, which petition was also granted on the 18th of October, after the closing of the older universities in 1818.

The words of the proclamation of Frederic William III., April 5, 1815, addressed to the Prussian Rhine countries:-"I will reopen for your children the institutions for public instruction which have been so neglected under the pressure of the last administration," were faithfully kept. The province possesses now twenty-four gymnasiums, fourteen progymnasiums, ten real schools of the first order, two real schools of the second order, ten higher burgher schools, of which fourteen gymnusiums, eight progymnasiums, two higher burgher schools, are Catholic; one gymnasium, one progymnasium, one real school of the second order are united, and two progymnasiums, five real and two higher citizen schools whose religious denomination has not yet been determined. In all the institutions there are pupils of various denominations; only the academy for young noblemen at Bedburg, opened in 1842 for the nobility of the Rhine, has preserved throughout its genuine Catholic character. The ecclesiastical inspection for the Catholic schools in the Rhenish provinces consists of the archbishop of Cologne and the bishops of Munster and Treves, and for the Hohenzollern population, the archbishop of Freiburg. The remarkable industrial activity of the people has particularly favored the foundation of real schools and higher burgher schools. The first Rhenish provincial diet made the furtherance of these institutions the object of a special petition, and received from the government a favorable answer; but the petition of the 27th of October, 1856, asking for a wider range in the establishment of real-schools, remained unheeded. The proposed union of the higher burgher schools with classes of the progymnasiums, shows that humane culture stood in great favor.

VIII. Brandenburg.—This province, the central point of the monarchy, consists now of Kurmark, Neumark, and the portions of the Lower Elec. torate, in the kingdom of Saxony, which were added to these in 1815;

Altmark belongs to the province of Saxony. The University of Frankfort on the Oder, (1505,) was the beginning of the literary life that was to shed later from this province, light and culture over all parts, and proclaim, especially through its schools, the glory of Prussia to the most distant countries. After the introduction of the Reformation, there were founded, in 1574, under John George, and by the magistrate of Berlin, the gymnasium of the Gray Convent, and in 1607, by Joachim Frederic, a pedagogium at Joachimsthal. The latter, which, after its schoolbuildings had been destroyed by Cursaxon soldiers, (1636,) was transported to Berlin, is still flourishing, richly endowed, and known under the name of the gymnasium of Joachimsthal. As Berlin is the constant seat of the central administration, all its general school laws and regulations became special ones for the province, which, through the foundation of the Frederic William University of Berlin (1810,) grew ever stronger under the unceasing influence of its life and light. It possesses fortyfive higher institutions, all evangelical, of which only four gymnasiums and one real school, the first opened in 1747 by Joh. Jal. Hecker, are under royal patronage. The common councils of the cities, especially of Berlin, have, since they recovered from the heavy war burdens, under which this province suffered particularly, raised considerable means for establishing new schools of all sorts, and the capital shows at this moment a most praiseworthy zeal to set an example to the other towns of the country in the care and attention given to schools.

C. LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

In the local administration, the institutions of royal foundation are under the immediate patronage of the crown; there is no immediate jurisdiction between them and the school-colleges. In the higher institutions of towns, the magistrate of the place exercises generally the immediate right of patronage. The regulation of the minister Von Schuckmann, July 26, 1811, provided in every city, for all that related to school affairs, one council only under the name of school-deputation, which, according to the size of the place, and the importance of its schools, was to consist of from one to three members of the magistrature, of the city college, and of an equal number of special citizen deputies, to whom, in the larger town, was also adjoined a superintendent. Such schools as were not under the city patronage of the school-deputation, as, for example, the Jewish schools, had to send a representative. As, however, in the course of time a special administration was provided for the higher schools, the former became subordinate to the latter, or existed only, as in the province of Prussia, for the purpose of taking cognition of systems of instruction, or, as in Berlin, of keeping statistical accounts, especially in regard to regular school attendance.

In most cities, the right of patronage is exercised by the magistrate, who in later times has adjoined to himself, as technical colleague, a city school-counselor; in Berlin, two, and in the cities of Stettin, Magdeburg,

Breslau, Danzig, one; the city commissaries are so far concerned in these matters, as they command the city finances, which of course gives them a very considerable influence.

In many cities, as particularly in Westphalia and the province of the Rhine, the administration consists of a special curatorium or school-commission, and in what regards its outside affairs, of attorneys, treasurers and directors. Within the province of the patronage council belongs all that concerns the outward prosperity of the institutions, the regulation of accounts, the preservation and increase of the buildings and utensils, the survey of inventories, and mostly of foundations, grants of benefices, especially to the free-school.

For this purpose it is in constant communication with the leaders of the school, receives from them reports and the respective accounts of all the details of school affairs, and is kept acquainted with the condition of school attendance, systems of instruction and public and final examinations, in which latter the members of the magistracy (Gymnasiarchen) or of the curatories are requested to be present. One of the most important duties devolving upon the so long established patronage-right, is the choice of directors and teachers; the welfare of the schools lies then entirely in the hands of the magistracy, and the correct exercise of this duty is more important than all regulations and school-laws, since everything depends on the capability of the teacher. As in later times the city councils were able to command better financial means than the crown, and the city commissaries showed themselves in readiness, by important grants, to further the prosperity of the higher schools, the latter of city patronage, received a powerful push, and begin even to take rank above those of the crown, of more ancient date, and better endowed. The choice of directors since 1810 is subject to royal confirmation, and that of teachers since 1817, to one from the State-council, but these would never be denied, except perhaps in times of political troubles or in cases of formal or moral irregularity. The regulation issued by the cabinet's order of November 10, 1862, in regard to the confirmation of directors and teachers, states that the provincial school-colleges should have to secure the approbation of the Minister of Instruction only for the appointment of higher teachers in gymnasiums, authorized progymnasiums and real-schools, and for the rectors of all institutions recognized in 1859 as higher citizen-schools; the appointment, installation and confirmation of all other teachers in the above named schools was left to the provincial councils. The directors of gymnasiums and real-schools of royal patronage were to be appointed as before by the king, and those of schools of city patronage needed his confirmation. In some schools, the parishes have a share in the patronage, and are represented by their pastors and church-members.

A royal compatronat is obtained on the ground of a city institution supported by contributions from the State. This circumstance was determined by a royal cabinet order of June 10, 1817, and is put into effect