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of the Department of Instruction. Teachers of the institutions under the patronage of the city can not be elected aldermen; they are required to accept a guardianship only of children of relatives or fellow teachers, and to this a consent is necessary. Before concluding marriage, they have to petition the governors of the respective province for his consent, and oblige themselves to contribute to the general fund for the support of widows. There is no limit prescribed to their giving private lessons; but the establishment of private institutions requires the consent of the local officers and of the Department.

The secret lists of conduct, which had been introduced early after the reorganization of the State, to be made out annually by the directors according to prescribed schedule, and returned by them to the provincial school department, and by the latter, after having been perfected, to the Department of Instruction, have been abolished by decree of July 31, 1848. These lists contained four divisions to mark personalities and official employment; three divisions to mark official conduct, moral behavior and private studies of the teachers. They have been undeservedly decried; for they gave to the director much more opportunity to recommend in an official way teachers of merit to the Department for distinction, than to take away from their merits. Since then a periodical report of administration gives the directors occasion to express their opinion on the qualification of a teacher; if it contains a censure, they have to apprise the teacher of it, and afford him an opportunity for justification. The royal decree of July 11, 1849, with regard to misdemeanors in office by officers other than judicial, was also applied to public teachers. Minister Von Ladenberg declared in a circular dated July 26th, 1849 : "The productive working of the office of a teacher, rests essentially upon the whole spiritual and moral bearing of the individual and upon the respect it inspires in his scholars, as well as in their parents and guardians. The more important the educating element appears in the character of youth, the more the superintending authority should look upon this circumstance, and should not hesitate to consider, if needs there be, conduct outside of the school a misdemeanor in office." However, this decree made it a duty to protect a teacher against unjust and inimical accusations, as well as to give due consideration to the just complaints of those who confide to the teacher their holiest goods, the spiritual and moral welfare of their children. The code of discipline for all officers of the government, of July 21st, 1852, is considered to apply equally to all public teachers.

Leave of absence for a journey during the course of instruction can be granted by the directors for one week; the school department of the province can extend it to four weeks for a journey into foreign countries, and to six weeks within the State; the Ober president can grant six weeks' leave out of the State, and eight weeks within its boundaries; for any longer period the consent of the Minister of Instruction or of the king is required. During a leave of absence beyond four weeks, accord

ing to order dated March 28th, 1808, officers shall draw only half salary, which however is but seldom practiced. In accordance with the cabinet order of June 15th, 1863, during a leave of absence, salary is paid in full for the first six weeks; half pay for four and a half months' longer, and no salary afterwards. In case of sickness no deduction is made. During a journey for purposes of science, the expenses for a deputy are deducted. The same authority which commissions for a position is to receive also application for discharge, which shall only be refused when the general interests would suffer by acceptance. The teacher is not allowed to leave his post until arrangements have been made for a successor or for temporary occupation. The regular period for giving notice of discontinuance in office is generally six months, and to begin April 1st, or October 1st. The salary of teachers, at the beginning of this century, was everywhere mostly very small and very rarely fixed in amount. part of the receipts was derived from various fees and perquisites, some of them even degrading, of which the history of some schools furnishes ample evidence. Only since the reorganization of the State the government has continually labored to procure a fixed living salary for teachers, and particularly to abolish their dependence on the fees paid for instruction. For if by these a just equalization between labor and wages was effected, they very readily led to overcrowding of classes and other inconveniences, from which a school should be kept free. Pro-temporary officials receive a remuneration which can only exceptionally amount to the regular salary. The principal and most important emolument, a free residence, has been retained whenever it is derived from donative funds or local appropriations. As a matter of course the director has a suitable dwelling in the institution, and where this is not the case, it is looked upon as an evil which should be remedied as soon as possible.

The greater

During a mobilization of the army, for those who are called into active service and who have their household with wife and child, a decrease in salary takes place, from the beginning of the month in which they are obliged to leave their homes, but only so far as their salary and military pay together passes beyond the amount of 800 th. per year. Salaries are paid every quarter of a year in advance; for accidental duties at the institution, remuneration is generally granted. During a journey in the interest of the service, and when a removal to another position takes place, mileage is paid proportionate to the office. Teachers who, without fault of theirs, find themselves in reduced circumstances, may have extraordinary assistance from the funds of the State, if their yearly income is not above 1000 th., (thaler, 72 cents.)

The janitors of the school, who in accordance with a resolution of the Department of Oct. 12th, 1837, shall be selected from the military invalids entitled to maintenance in civil life, receive above their salary a dwelling-place in the institution, and materials for fuel and light. The collections taken up formerly among the students as a Christmas present, have been discontinued, and they receive instead a remuneration from the funds of the school.

The granting of pensions, up to the third decade of this century, was an act of royal favor; communities and corporations also exercised such acts of grace towards teachers no longer capable for duty, and often to a considerable amount. A law for the pensioning of teachers, after much deliberation and conferring with the provincial authorities, was enacted, May 28th, 1846, and received the royal approbation. According to it all teachers and officers of superior schools become entitled to a pension during life, if after a certain period in service they become incapable for duty not by their own fault, and if they were duly commissioned. If at an advanced age they are not absolutely incapable for duty, but unable to satisfy the requirements of their office, they are obliged, if the Department thinks proper, to pay an assistant appointed to aid them; however, there must be left for them a salary at least equal to the pension. The amount of pension is fixed by a scale; after fifteen years of service, foursixteenths, after fifty years, twelve-sixteenths of their salary. The time of service is computed from the date of their taking the oath of office, and if they did not take such, from the day of their first entry into service. The trial year is not included, but the time passed in active military service is, and time of service before the enemy counts double. The fund for pensions is derived from yearly contributions of the salary, as introduced since January 1st, 1847; to the amount of one per cent. of 400 th.; one and one-fourth per cent. of 1000 th.; two per cent. of 2000 th., and three per cent. of 3000 th.; moreover, one-twelfth of the whole salary must be paid in one installment.

The families of teachers who die in office, receive at the end of the month in which the death occurred, one quarter's salary; those of pensioned teachers that of one month. Every teacher commissioned for one of the higher schools is entitled and required to enter the "Institute for the support of widows," at Berlin, unless his age is too far advanced or ill health oppose his becoming a member. The amount insured must be at least one-fifth of the salary, and is not allowed to be above 500 th. In extraordinary cases, voluntary pensions are given to widows, generally only from 50 to 100 th., and means for education in schools are granted for orphaned boys to their seventeenth year, and for girls to their fifteenth year, in monthly rates from one-half to two thalers. Many of these institutes possess considerable donations for widows and orphans.

III. REGULATIONS OF EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS.

The "Magdeburg Order of Visitation," (1563,) required the magistrate, with the consent of the resident pastor and superintendent, to appoint the public school-teacher. More minute regulations on an "examination" of teachers at the Latin and German schools were contained in the royal order of Sept. 30th, 1718, according to which they should be examined by the consistory or the general superintendent before being commissioned, and to those who gave satisfaction a testimonial should be given, and no one could be commissioned without it. Repeated instructions of 1750 and 1764 declared that no teacher should be engaged or promoted

without the approbation of the superior consistory, and the instruction for the superior school-collegium of Feb. 22d, 1787, ordered that a teacher should be appointed only on the ground of a testimonial from this authority. The candidate proposed for a vacant teachership was presented to the consistory or school-collegium of the province, which referred him to one of their members, generally to an experienced teacher. In this much depended on the character and learning of the latter, and these examinations lacked uniformity. Gedike, who, as a member of the superior school-collegium, was often charged with like examinations, gives a detailed sketch thereof in the programme of the gymnasiums of Frederickswerder of 1789 (collected writings on schools, II. pp. 90.) By the patrons of city schools, as long as teachers were mostly theologians, the evidence of their education for the ministerial office was generally deemed sufficient; likewise the recommendation of a distinguished scholar, or trial lessons, or the degree of Bachelor or Master of Arts given by a university, or the testimonials of their attendance at seminaries for theology, philology or pedagogy. But this custom proved more and more insufficient for the higher schools, since newly revived humanitarianism penetrated more deeply into them, and they no longer selected their teachers from among the candidates of theology, but from candidates who had been specially trained for higher teachership and proved more suitable. Thus, when the centralizing organization of the State extended also to the field of education, an examination of candidates for higher teachership, legal throughout the State, was ordered by the edict of July 12th, 1810, which at first was made by deputations of the Department of Public Instruction, and latterly by a special commission of examinations. The regulations for examination had been drawn up by W. von Humboldt, Schleiermacher and Süvern. Of the motives, Humboldt had stated that such examinations are the only barrier that could be opposed to the abuse of the rights of patronage. It would honor the profession of teachers in the State, if every one who enters it had first to give evidence of his qualification. Fr. A. Wolf also declared himself in favor of not admitting any to teach at the secondary schools, though they had graduated at universities, unless they had been examined and authorized by the commission of examinations. The examination should consist in written theses, oral questioning and trial lessons. The commission could dispense with one of these. Those who, after presenting a dissertation in Latin and passing the regular oral examination at one of the faculties for philosophy of one of the State universities, had obtained the degree of Master of Arts, were not subject to further examination, only to a trial lesson. With members of seminaries for classic schools, the examination taken at their entrance by the director of the same, was sufficient. Distinguished foreigners called to professorships by the Prussian Department of Instruction were not subjected to any examination. The certificate given pointed out distinctly in what branches the candidate was well posted or weak, what proportion his skill in teaching held

to his knowledge, and the degree of his general qualification was indicated in the authority to teach in secondary-schools. The examination was called " examen pro facultate docendi." Those proposed for a permanent professorship, had to pass an examen pro loco, in which regard should be had only to the necessary knowledge and skill for the particular position. To dispense from examinations was the privilege of the Department for Public Instruction. These regulations took effect, Jan. 1st, 1813. The requirements made of candidates at first were trifling, and the taking effect of the regulations fell in a time when Mars was worshiped more than Minerva; but when, after 1815, studies could again be pursued undisturbedly, a continually increasing zeal for the study of philology and philosophy manifested itself, and gradually a class of teachers, scientifically educated, formed itself, the like of which could not be found easily at any other time, and towards which chief counselor Johannes Schulze largely contributed by encouraging learned publications and attaching promotion to the same; particularly in the selection of directors great weight was given to successful labor as an author. A regulation of the department of Aug. 21, 1824, called to the attention of the consistories the one-sidedness of philologic preparation, and demanded that examinations should be extended principally on logic and metaphysics, psychology and history of philosophy, history and theology; but that very one-sidedness had trained the best powers of teaching, and if the examination in philosophy had remained in the background, there was among the students of that time such great zeal for education in philosophy, that without special requirements at the examination, all studies were enlivened thereby, even in a more extensive and more liberal manner than is possible by the anxiety to pass an examination. The afore-mentioned circular, in calling upon the commission for examination, to pay strict regard to "thoroughness and quality of philosophy and the study thereof, to the end that the shallow and superficial philosophisms which in modern times compose wholly the science of philosophy, may give way to fundamental studies, and that philosophy may obtain again her honorable and useful position among the sciences, and that academic youth, instead of being bewildered and darkened by after-philosophy, may be conducted by thorough instruction in a genuine philosophical spirit, to a clear, correct and complete application of the powers of the mind," was particularly meant for the study of the philosophy of Hegel, and the early appointment of Hegel into the commission for examination coincided with it. The objections raised, by the commission of Berlin only, against the practicability of the order of the department in reference to philosophy, were replied to on Aug. 13th, 1865, that "the different branches of philosophy in which examination should be had, give to the examining person forthwith a distinct and concrete subject, by which to discover whether the candidate has mentally appropriated what he heard in the lectures on philosophy at the university." The observation of the commission, that no law did exist, and could not very well exist,

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