France, and Germany, though so diversified in the character of ornaments that it was questionable in taste. In the next century the style was very similar, examples of which are perhaps more numerous than in previous ages, and the foliage and scroll-work were particularly beautiful in drawing and exquisite in colour. Very many examples exist of the various styles in this (the fifteenth) century, beautiful in the extreme, the details being generally elaborated in a wonderful manner. Flowers, birds, insects, and reptiles, in every shade and colour, were commonly introduced, and painted very carefully upon gold grounds. In many examples, the shadows cast from the flowers or other objects were thrown upon the gold background, and often stippled or dotted in brown, producing an effect very rich and agreeable to the eye. The discovery of the art of printing at this period (1440) was a severe blow to illumination, although borders and initials were still painted in books both of vellum and paper for some time afterwards, the body of the text only being printed. But, as letters rudely engraved on wood blocks, and printed in red and blue colours, were introduced, miniature painting, as a matter of course, was not in such request, and consequently declined in quality of excellence, and in this country fell to the lowest ebb about the time of Henry VIII. It revived, however, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, when Raphael, DaVinci, Julio Clovio, and other great masters, added such lustre to the annals of art: some of them are inimitable in respect of manipulation and pure colour. A specimen of one (and perhaps the finest in existence) by Julio Clovio is preserved in the Soane Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and is well worth a visit from any lover of art. In the seventeenth century the art still existed; and manuscripts frequently, heraldic as well as religious, may be found, having been executed in the eighteenth century; and although the art was very nearly lost, it is now, I am happy to say, reviving through the very source from which its extinction appeared inevitable-that is, the printing press-chiefly through the facilities offered to the world by colour printing, more particularly chromolithography. Many of the magnificent works printed and published by the enterprising firm of Day and Son, of Gate Street (now a limited liability company), are too well known to require enumeration; and I cannot conclude the remarks I have made on this subject without referring my readers to the illuminated works published by those benefactors to history and art, the Messrs. Day, as the most ready mode of consulting the ancient authority without the labour, and in many cases almost insurmountable difficulties, of research in foreign libraries, as well as the next to impossibility of reference to private possessors of these more than golden treasures. I consider the revival of the art of illuminating in this country to be due in a great measure to the good taste and private energy, aided by the mechanical printing process improvements, of the aforementioned gentlemen.

With respect to books of reference for pupils, beginners in illumination, the most useful, and at the same time (considering the amount of information contained in them) the cheapest, are two little books, entitled "What Illuminating Was," and "What Illuminating Should Be," by M. Digby Wyatt, Esq., illustrated with chromo-lithographic facsimiles from original

manuscripts by W. R. Tymms, Esq. Mr. Digby Wyatt is too well known as one of the very best authorities on this subject to require any commendation from me. I may mention that the two little volumes I have just recommended are now published together in one volume, with many additional illustrated examples in colour, price one guinea; and I do not hesitate to state an opinion that it is the cheapest and best book of the kind I have ever seen or heard of. Many manuals have been published on this subject, some good, but many, I fear, commercial speculations only, by vendors of outlines of illumination now so much in request, and which for actual beginners are useful in the extreme. A very valuable work by H. Noel Humphreys, Esq., giving in facsimile whole pages of some of the finest and most interesting examples now existing in this country, as well as in some of the libraries of the Continent, entitled "The Illuminated Works of the Middle Ages," should certainly be consulted by any one pursuing the art in question. This work may be seen in nearly all large libraries, and of course in the British Museum. Another invaluable work, entitled "The Grammar of Ornament," by Owen Jones, Esq., has been recently republished in a smaller form and at a reduced price. This work contains three thousand examples from various styles and in colours.

The student will be led naturally to commence by copying portions of early manuscripts. She will thus acquire the manner and character of such compositions. This, however, should be carried only to a certain extent-only, indeed, so far as to embue the mind with the characteristic of quaintness which is one, and, indeed, a chief pleasure in the contemplation of those interesting specimens of antique art. I do not advocate, however, the copying servilely, for any lengthened period, the illuminated examples of the middle ages, but the use of them, and the perfect acquaintance with them, as a basis to work upon; for I hold that the general feeling of the work should be to some extent in accordance with the present agethat in which they are produced-though founded on an antique manner.

As a first essay at composition, then, let us try our powers of mind and hand upon one page. Take a verse of poetry any subject which pleases you best. It should be simple- not too complicated not embracing too much matter. To begin, then: Sketch roughly with a black lead pencil the size and general position of the lines of lettering, and when you are satisfied with the proportion and space occupied in such, sketch also, in the same slight manner, the position and general form of border or initial letter, with its accompanying ground. Then consider the colour and effect intended; though this you will have in a measure disposed of in the first or mental consideration of your subject.

Harmonious arrangements of colour are indispensable. It is not only brilliancy in the colours composing your picture with which you must concern yourself, but the just disposition of them, so that each one shall enhance the value and beauty of the others. A picture composed of bright colours only will rarely please the eye; and if those bright colours are inharmoniously disposed, the eye will be irritated rather than satisfied. Violent contrasts-such, for instance, as bright red and bright blue-should not be

juxtaposed, unless divided by a band or line of black or white, light or dark grey, or neutral colour, such as gold. Compositions of chaste design, generally pleasing proportions, and good grouping of ornamental masses is primarily important, and should absorb all the pupil's attention in commencing a new subject; and let me observe, that patience is a virtue here absolutely necessary. I make this remark, as I find, by experience, that pupils are often impatient to arrive at results. That such impetuosity must retard rather than induce progress will, I am sure, be at once admitted.

You have now sketched your design, having taken care, doubtless, that the initial letter-should there be one-appears neither too large nor too small; that the surrounding leaves or ornament be proportionate, as a large letter filled up with very small fine work would be objectionable, as would be in like manner a small letter surrounded or filled in with forms of foliage or other matter of too large a proportion. All lines, where possible, should flow, as it were, gracefully one from another in gradual undulations. No sudden or violent tangental shoots from stalks in opposite directions should occur; no excrescences—nothing, in short, that can puzzle or excite, suddenly or disagreeably arresting the eye. The composition should, indeed, be so adjusted that the ensemble may be impressed upon the mind agreeably and at once. As a rule, it will be found that all patterns- for example, those of paper-hangings-that require looking at intently and searchingly before the design is clearly understood, create impressions less pleasing than those comprehended at a glance. This remark will apply equally to historical, landscape, as to ornamental subjects. For colouring, be it observed, clean brushes and pure water are indispensable. Sable-hair brushes-or, as they are sometimes called, pencils-should be used; and, where the colour or pigment is used thickly, red sable brushes are preferable, as the hair is stronger than the black, which latter would be liable to expand when fully or overcharged with thick colour, and would thus be disagreeable as well as difficult to work with. Where flat transparent washes of colour are required, they should be laid on as rapidly as possible with a large brush well filled with colour, repetition of touch being as much as possible avoided, as the flatness or evenness of tint would be impaired thereby. Manipulation, indeed, requires particular attention, and more especially when_the material on which the illuminator is working is vellum. By the way, I do not advocate the use of vellum for a beginner, as the removal of superfluous lines or marks is very difficult on that substance.

To reduce or lighten tints by the addition of white, care should be taken that "Chinese white". -not flake white-be used, as the latter, being the metal lead, will change in a very short time any colour mixed with it to its own dull hue. Bronze powder, mixed with a little gum-water or other gluten, may be used instead of gold: the effect, for the purpose of a sketch, produced with this material, is all that can be desired, and is moreover much more economical than real gold. Where, however, this last expensive metal must be used, that in the shell is the best, and least difficult in its use for beginners. Where a large mass of lettering or text is required, indelible brown ink is preferable to Indian ink or lamp black, either of which appears under these circumstances too cold in colour.

Shading, so called, now demands your particular attention. It is pro duced by more or less stress or pressure of the brush, dispensing more or less colour, as necessary. Practice will achieve this, but practice only. Hatching and stippling are also resorted to for rounding off or shading, and for producing the effect of high finish. Shading on a leaf (as Fig. 1) is often represented carelessly, showing botanical as well as manipulative ignorance, by a mere daub of colour down the centre of the leaf (Fig. 2), appearing like a trench, destroying the form, which, even unshaded, might be suggested by the outline alone, and more satisfactorily.

I will now endeavour to show you how to proceed with an original design. Take the flower of the convolvulus, or any other you please. Draw it naturally to a certain extent.

Fig. 1.

When I say to a certain extent, I mean that, as you may in all probability find difficulty in making the flowers, or leaves Fig. 2. and stalks, fill up the space you purpose occupying, you may conventionalize the drawing by taking a sprig or branch cut from the main stem to occupy the portion required, as in the drawing, taking into consi

deration the peculiarity of bota nical construction of the plant you are drawing; and, in case any portion of the composition is unsatisfactory, and difficulty experienced in rubbing out, make a tracing of the good portions, and draw the additional alterations also on the tracing-paper. Should further improvement be

requisite, make yet another tracing from the im- | proved one, or repeat this process until the composition is as perfect as you can make it; that is, turn the tracing-paper, and retrace it. To do this, place it upon white paper or some white substance, so that it may be easily seen, and mark over all the lines very accurately with a soft pencil, say HB, having a fine point; make a clear line, and let there be no superfluous marks. Then place it in position, and attach it to your paper or cardboard by a few touches of gum, and, when fixed, place a sheet of letter or note-paper upon it, and rub steadily with a paperknife or pen-knife handle until the design is transferred sufficiently clear, when it may be coloured at once, or, if desired, outlined in very light Indian ink. The rough effect of colour might be tried upon the tracing after it has been transferred, and when it is of little further use.