cellor as acting chairman and controller of the business of the Council. It consists of fifty-nine delegates from the several states, appointed by the legislative assemblies, who are supposed to act directly on the instructions of their respective governments, each delegation casting its vote as a unit. The Reichstag, or Imperial Diet, has the usual power of a chamber of deputies, but it has no power to force a change of ministry. Its actual work is confined to checking the arbitrary powers of the Bundesrath. The members of the Reichstag are elected for three years in the ratio of one representative for every 10,000 inhabitants; but states having less than that number of inhabitants can still have a representative. Every citizen of twenty-five years may vote for members of the, Reichstag, and any voter may be a candidate for election, provided he has been a resident of the state for one year.

Bunker Hill Monument.-The corner-stone of this monument was laid on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1825, by Lafayette, and the oration was pronounced by Daniel Webster. It is a square shaft of Quincy granite, 221 feet high, 31 feet square at the base and 15 feet at the top. Inside the shaft is a round hollow cone, 7 feet wide at the bottom and 4 feet 2 inches at the top, encircled by a winding staircase containing 224 stone steps, which leads to a chamber 11 feet in diameter immediately under the apex. The chamber has four windows, and contains two cannons, named Hancock and Adams respectively, which were used in the war. The monument was completed and was dedicated June 17, 1843.

Burial Customs.-The modes of burying the dead differ widely among various peoples. Among some the dead are buried lying, others sitting-as is the case with several of the Indian tribes, among whom, it is related, warriors or leaders in the nations have been buried upon their favorite war-horses. This was the manner of burial of the famous Indian chief Blackbird, of the once powerful Omahas. There is a remarkable agreement of custom, however, in the practice of placing the body east and west. It is held by some writers that this custom is due to solar symbolism, and the head is placed to the east or to the west according as the dead are thought of in connection with the sunrise, the reputed home of the Deity, or the sunset, the reputed home of the dead. There are, however, some tribes that lay their dead north and south, and others bury men with the face to the north and women with the face to the south; while among some of the African tribes, if one happens to die away from his home, he is buried facing his native village.

Business Terms, Vocabulary of.-[See Appendix.]

Byzantine Empire was the Roman Empire of the East. The name was derived from Byzantium, the ancient name of Constantinople, the capital of the empire. As a separate power it began its existence in 395 A. D., when Theodosius the Great died, bequeathing the Empire of Rome to his two sons, who divided it-Arcadius

taking the eastern half, with his capital at Constantinople. It was a rich and powerful sovereignty, and continued to exist for over ten centuries. During the last few centuries it was gradually but surely declining before the Turks and Saracens, and ended with the Mohammedan conquest of Constantinople in 1453. It was also called the Greek Empire, and was the home and head of the Greek Church.

Cache is the name given by parties of travelers on the Western prairies of the United States to places for concealing provisions and other articles. The making of a cache is a matter of much labor and ingenuity. A hole is dug to a depth of perhaps six or eight feet, and several feet broad, and then, the articles being interred, the surface is replaced with the greatest care. The excavated earth is also carefully removed, so as to leave no trace whatever of the excavation. The situation of the cache, however, is known to the party by some landmark. Similar depositories are constructed by Arctic explorers.

Cadmus was the son of Agenor, King of Phoenicia, by Telephassa, and was sent by his father, along with his brothers Phoenix and Cilix, in quest of their sister Europa, who had been carried off by Jupiter, and they were ordered not to return until they had found her. The brothers were accompanied by their mother and by Thasus, a son of Neptune. Their search was to no purpose-they could get no intelligence of their sister; and, fearing the indignation of their father, they resolved to settle in various countries. Phoenix thereupon established himself in Phoenicia, Cilix in Cilicia, and Cadmus and his mother went to Thrace, where Thasus founded a town, also named after himself. After the death of his mother Cadmus went to Delphi, to inquire of the oracle respecting Europa. The god desired him to cease from troubling himself about her, but to follow a cow as his guide, and to build a city where she should lie down. On leaving the temple he went through Phocis, and, meeting a cow belonging to the herds of Pelagon, he followed her. She went through Boeotia till she came to where Thebes afterward stood, and there lay down. Wishing to sacrifice her to Minerva, Cadmus sent his companions to fetch water from the fountain of Mars; but the font was guarded by a serpent, who killed the greater part of them. Cadmus then engaged and destroyed the serpent. By the direction of Minerva he sowed its teeth, and immediately a crop of armed men sprung up, who slew each other quarreling or through ignorance. For killing the sacred serpent Cadmus was obliged to spend a year in servitude to Mars. At the expiration of that time Minerva herself prepared for him a palace, and Jupiter gave him Harmonia, the daughter of Mars and Venus, in marriage. Cadmus and Harmonia were eventually changed into serpents and sent by Jupiter to the Elysian plain, or, as some writers say, were conveyed thither in a chariot drawn by serpents. Greek tradition ascribed to him the first introduction of

the alphabet, derived from Phoenicia, and consisting, then, of sixteen letters. He is also credited with the discovery of brass, or the introduction of its use.

Cairns are piles of stones, and were erected doubtless for various purposes. From old records it would appear that they were often raised to distinguish the marches or boundaries of lands. A cairn near Balmoral, on the Highland Dee, is said to have been erected as a mustering-place for the men of Strathdee, who took its name, Cairn-na-cuimhne, or Cairn of Remembrance, for their war-cry. In later times, places where great crimes had been committed were marked by cairns. Thus Mushet's Cairn in the Queen's Park, at Edinburgh, shows the spot where a wife was murdered by her husband, under circumstances of peculiar atrocity, in 1720. The great purpose of cairns, however, was sepulchral, as is shown by the human remains found in so many of them. These bones are generally calcined or half-burned, and inclosed either in what are called cists-small, rude coffins of unhewn stone-or in urns of earthenware, which, again, are in many cases protected by stone cists. Along with the bones are often found flint arrow-heads, flint ax-heads, stone hammers, stone rings, glass beads, implements of bone, bones of horses and oxen, spear-heads and other weapons of bronze. Many cairns are of considerable size. Of the three large cairns at Clava, on the banks of the Nairn River, near the battle-field of Culloden, one was found to contain a gallery, about two feet wide, leading from the south side of the cairn to a circular chamber in the center, about fifteen feet in diameter, built of unhewn and uncemented stones, each course overlapping the other so as to meet at the top in a sort of rude dome, which has received the name of the "beehive-house." The Boss Cairn on the moor of Dranandon, in the parish of Minnigaff, had two galleries crossing each other, each 80 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 feet high. Of all the chambered cairns, however, the most remarkable is that at New Grange, on the banks of the Boyne, near Drogheda, in Ireland. It is 400 paces in circumference and about 80 feet high, and is supposed to contain 180,000 tons of stone. In 1699 it was described by Edward Llhwyd, the Welsh antiquary, as "a mount or barrow, of very considerable height, encompassed with vast stones, pitched on end, around the bottom of it, and having another, lesser, standing on the top." This last pillar has disappeared. Of the outer ring of pillars ten still remain. The opening to this cairn was accidentally discovered about the year 1699. The gallery, of which it is the external entrance, communicates with a dome-roofed chamber or cave nearly in the center of the mound. This gallery, which measures in length about 50 feet, is at its entrance 4 feet high, and in breadth about 3 feet. Toward the interior its size gradually increases; and its height, where it forms the chamber, is 18 feet. The chamber is cruciform, the head and arms of the cross being formed by three recesses, each containing a basin of granite. The sides of

these recesses are composed of immense blocks of stone, several of which bear a great variety of carving, supposed by some to be symbolical. The length of the passage and chamber from north to south is 75 feet, and the breadth of the chamber from east to west is 20 feet. Of the urns or basins in the recesses, that to the east is the most remarkable. It is formed of a block of granite, and appears to have been set upon, or rather within, another of somewhat larger dimensions.

Calico-Printing.-The art of calico-printing was introduced into Europe about the seventeenth century, although it is believed to have been known in India and Egypt as early as the first or second centuries. In this early period the printing was done by means of blocks on which the designs to be transferred to the cloth had been engraved in relief. These were dipped into dyestuff, and then pressed upon the material by hand. Later, presses for this block-printing were invented, and the use of several was introduced so engraved as to fill up each other's vacancies, and thus several colors were put into the pattern. About 1770 copperplate printing was invented in England. By this method the design was cut into plates, the color filled into the sunken parts of the engraving, and the cloths were printed by being pressed upon it. This invention finally led to the introduction of cylinderprinting, the method now in use. The cylinders are of copper, and the design is engraved upon their surface. A separate cylinder is required for each color or shade of color to be used in printing the cloth, and in fine and intricate designs as many as twenty cylinders are sometimes used. These are set in a strong frame against the face of a large central drum made of iron and covered with woollen cloth in several folds, between which and the cylinders the calico is printed as it passes. The color is spread upon the cylinders, as they revolve, by contact with another roller, which dips into a trough containing the coloring-matter properly thickened. This roller is made of an absorbent, elastic material, similar to the roller used in inking a printing press. Each cylinder thus receives its proper color, and imparts it, in revolving, to the calico pressed between its face and that of the fixed drum. A sharp blade of metal pressing against the copper cylinder removes all superfluous color from its surface, so that only the design cut in the metal is imprinted in clear outline upon the cloth. The employment of a number of rollers to make one design is attended with much difficulty, as in passing under them the cloth is in much danger of being displaced and the regularity of the print destroyed. As the cloth leaves the printing-machine it is drawn over rollers through a hot-air chamber, by which it is thoroughly dried, and the colors become fully set.

Calumet.-The Calumet is a tobacco-pipe having a stem of reed about two-and-a-half feet long, decorated with locks of women's hair and feathers, and a large bowl of soft red sandstone. It is the peace-pipe of the American Indians, and plays an important

part in the conclusion of treaties. After the treaty has been signed, the Indians fill the calumet with tobacco and present it to the representatives of the party with whom they have been entering into alliance, themselves smoking out of it afterward. The presentation of it to strangers is a mark of hospitality, and to refuse it would be considered an act of hostility.

Cambridge, University of, is situated at the town of Cambridge, forty-eight miles north-east of London. The first regular society of students was that of Peter-House, founded in 1257. The history of the University, however, may be said to date from the opening of the twelfth century, but until the year mentioned there were no public halls or hostels, each student living in his own hired lodging. About 1257 the students began to live together in hostels, under the rule of a principal. These hostels were named after the saints to whom they were dedicated, the churches which they adjoined, or the persons who formerly built or possessed them. In the year 1280 there were as many as 34, and some of them contained from 20 to 40 masters of arts, and a proportionate number of younger students. These hostels were the beginning of what may be called the college system, which distinguishes the sister universities of Oxford and Cambridge from those of Edinburgh. London and the Continent. All the royal and religious foundations, with one exception, which now constitute the University were endowed between the latter part of the thirteenth and the close of the sixteenth century. The governing body of the University is the senate; but, before being submitted to it, all university laws must be approved by the council, a body elected by the resident members of the senate. After the chancellor and high-steward, the chief executive power is vested in the vice-chancellor, who is elected annually from the heads of colleges. There are three terms in this University-the Michaelmas or October term, the Lent term, and the Easter term. To take an ordinary B. A. degree a student must reside nine terms. The M. A. degree follows, without examination, about four years after. There are four classes of students-Fellow-Commoners and Noblemen, Pensioners, Sizars and Subsizars, and the more distinguished who are elected Scholars on the foundation of this college. The pensioners are the great body of students, are not on the foundation, and pay for their own commons, viz., dinners in halls, etc., and for their rooms. The sizars are poorer students, selected, however, by examination, who receive free commons and certain money payments, and are admitted at lower charges than the pensioners, but wear the same dress, and are no longer subject to the performance of menial offices, as they once were. The scholars

are elected, by examination, from the pensioners and sizars. They are on the foundation of the college, from which they receive certain emoluments. The fellows are subsequently elected from the scholars and the students who have distinguished themselves in the Tripos examinations. The University has forty professors, in