PART I:

GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT.

1. The Romans lacked the versatility, manysidedness and imaginative power of the Greeks; their eminent qualities are sober and acute thought, and firmness and perseverance of will. Their intellect was directed to the practical, and sometimes degenerated into egotism and cunning, just as their perseverance often turned into obstinacy and pedantry. In the domain of state and law these qualities accomplished great and enduring results, while they were decidedly unfavourable to art and literature.

1. Cic. Tusc. 1, 2 quae tanta gravitas, quae tanta constantia, magnitudo animi, probitas, fides, quae tam excellens in omni genere virtus in ullis fuit, ut sit cum maioribus nostris comparanda? (3) doctrina Graecia nos et omni litterarum genere superabat etc. De imp. Pomp. 60 maiores nostros semper in pace consuetudini, in bello utilitati paruisse. Cf. PLIN. NH. 25, 4. TAC. dial. 5 si ad utilitatem vitae omnia consilia factaque nostra dirigenda sunt. QUINTIL. 12, 2, 7 ego illum quem instituo romanum quendam velim esse sapientem, qui non secretis disceptationibus, sed rerum experimentis atque operibus vere civilem virum exhibeat.

2. VARRO RR. 1, 2, 2 vetus proverbium: Romanus sedendo vincit. Liv. 23, 14, 1 insita (Romanorum) animis industria. Liv. 42, 62 romana constantia, cf. 30, 7 and PoLr. 3, 75 extr. 27, 8 ἴδιον τοῦτο πάντῃ παρὰ ̔Ρωμαίοις ἔθος καὶ πάτριόν ἐστι, τὸ κατὰ μὲν τὰς ἐλαττώσεις αὐθαδεστάτους καὶ βαρυτάτους φαίνεσθαι, κατὰ δὲ τὰς ἐπιτυχίας ὡς μετριωτάτους. ib. 1, 39 ὄντες ἐν παντὶ φιλότιμοι διαφερόντως.

3. FRONTO epist. p. 135 Nab. putem, quia reapse nemo est Romae piλóσтopyos, ne nomen quidem huic virtuti esse romanum. The romana simplicitas (e.g. in MARTIAL. 11, 20, 10 and SYMMACH. epist. 7, 123; cf. HOR. S. 1, 3, 52) is frequently much less plainness than coarseness. Of the Romana fides also (Liv. 5, 27, 11; cf. more romano in Cic. ad fam. 7, 5, 3. 16, 3. 18, 3) the other nations formed a peculiar opinion. Liv. 9, 11, 7 semper aliquam fraudi speciem iuris imponitis. PLUT. Crass. 31.

4. The younger Africanus ap. MACR. sat. 3, 14, 7 eunt in ludum histrionum, discunt cantare, quae maiores nostri ingenuis probro ducier voluerunt. ib. 10 Cato,

R. L.

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cui etiam cantare non serii hominis videtur. SEN. contr. 1, praef. 8 cantandi saltandique obscena studia. TAC. dial. 10 in Graecia, ubi ludicras quoque artes exercere honestum est. All occupations without immediate practical tendency are artes leviores (Cic. Brut. 3) and mediocres (Cic. de or. 1, 6), studia leviora (Cic. de or. 1, 212. Cat. 50) and minora (Cic. Brut. 70). It is only when the practical occupations are no longer possible that the others also become optimae artes (Cic. fam. 7, 3, 4).

2. As long as the peculiar character of the Roman nation remained unaltered, literary occupation was thought admissible only so far as it was of practical value. It is true that the importance of eloquence as a means of political influence, the value of information in regard to events that had taken place, and the importance of jurisprudence were recognised at an early time; but the oldest historians shrank from the difficulty of moulding their still unschooled native tongue into a literary language, and wrote in Greek. All other fields of knowledge were all the more neglected; poetry was tolerated only for the purposes of worship, and during a long time limited to a single species. The earliest poets were foreigners, little respected in their inferior position, and thus doubly hindered in their influence. Only in the course of the 6th century U.c. the increased acquaintance with Greek life and literature produced new ideas, interests, and requirements.

1. Cic. Planc. 66 M. Catonis illud clarorum hominum atque magnorum non minus otii quam negotii rationem exstare oportere. The same Cato ap. GELL. 11, 2, 5 says in praise of ancient Rome: poeticae artis honos non erat. FESTUS 333 scribas proprio nomine antiqui et librarios et poetas vocabant. The literary activity of the elder Cato sufficiently shows what branches of literature were held admissible. He feared ὡς ἀποβαλοῦσι Ρωμαῖοι τὰ πράγματα γραμμάτων ἑλληνικῶν ȧvaπληolévтes (PLUT. Cato mai. 23). Cic. Tusc. 1, 1-6 gives a sketch of the part taken by the Romans in literature.

2. MHERTZ, Schriftsteller u. Publikum in Rom, Berl. 1853. LFRIEDLÄNDER, Sittengesch. Roms 35, 329.-Concerning the Roman book-trade, which took a considerable start only in the time of Cicero, and flourished specially during the first centuries of the Empire, see THBIRT, antikes Buchwesen 357. LHÄNNY, Schriftsteller u. Buchhändler in Rom, Zürich 1884. Cf. § 172, 1. 219, 21.

3. A significant result of the conservative and practical tendency of that part of the literature which may be called typically Roman is found in the great number and importance of the works intended to form introductions to the various departments of public life. In this isagogic literature the works of the elder Cato and many of those of Varro are specially prominent. But Q. Cicero's treatise de petitione consulatus and Frontinus de aquis also belong to this class. LMERCKLIN, d. isagogischen Schriften d. Röm., Philol. 4, 413. OJAHN, on Roman encyclopaedias, Ber. d. sächs. Ges. d. W. 1850, 263.

4. General works on the history of Roman literature: IAFABRICIUS, Bibliotheca Latina, Hamb. 1697 (best edited by IAERNESTI, Lps. 1773. 74 III); bibl.

Lat. mediae et infimae aetatis, Hamb. 1734-46 VI (last ed. Flor. 1858 VI). IN FUNCCIOS, de origine et pueritia, de adolescentia, de virili aetate, de imminente senectute, de vegeta senectute, de inerti ac decrepita senectute linguae Lat., Giessen etc. 1720 sqq. VI.—GBernhardy, Grundriss d. röm. Literatur, Halle 1872. JCh FBÄнR, Gesch. d. röm. Literatur, Carlsruhe 1868-70 III; with 3 suppl. I: die christl. Dichter u. Geschichtschreiber, Carlsr. 1872; II: d. Theologie u.d. Rechtsquellen, Carlsr. 1837; III: d. röm. Lit. im karoling. Zeitalter, Carlsr. 1840. Cf. § 345, 1. For the literature of the Republic see also the sections relating thereto in THMOMMSEN's röm. Geschichte.-EHÜBNER, Grundriss zu Vorless. üb. d. röm. Lit.-Gesch. Berl. 1878.-EMunk-OSeyffERT, Gesch. d. röm. Lit. für Gymn. usw., Berlin 1875. 77 II.-GASIMCOX, History of Latin Literature from Ennius to Boethius, London, 1883 II.

3. Of the various kinds of poetry, dramatic poetry seems after all to be most in conformity with the character of the Roman people. Like all Italians, the Romans possessed a quick eye for all peculiarities of outward appearance, the talent of close observation, lively imitation and quick repartee. Hence it comes that improvisation and songs of a jocular and abusive character, poetical dialogues and amoebaean ditties are found in Italy at a very remote date.

1. Histories of Latin poetry: ORIBBECK, Gesch. der röm. Dichtung I Dichtung der Republik, Stuttg. 1887. MPATIN, études sur la poésie lat. Par. 1875. II. WYSELLAR, the Roman poets of the Republic, Lond. 1881.

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2. Specimens of italum acetum (Hor. S. 1, 7, 32; cf. maledica civitas, Cic. Cael. 38; Romanorum facetiae, TREBELL. Gallien. 9) are furnished by the numerous surnames which were originally nicknames taken from corporal peculiarities; see QUINT. 1, 4, 25. EHÜBNER in IWMüller's Handb. d. Altertumswiss. 1, 515. This quality was further developed by the political and legal quarrels of subsequent times. Cf. Cic. de or. 2, 216. QUINT. 6, 3, 1.

3. The occentationes were prohibited in

the XII tables on punishment of flogging.-PLAUT. Aul. 3, 2, 31 te iam .. pipulo hic differam ante aedes.-For the satirical songs on the triumphator, see § 84.-The custom is described by SUET. Vesp. 19 in funere Favor archimimus personam eius (i.e. Vespasiani) ferens imitansque, ut est mos, facta ac dicta vivi.—The amoebaean form prevails in the songs of the fratres arvales, the Fescennine songs, the songs used in the triumphs, songs of beggars (SCHOL. Hor. E. 1, 17, 48), shepherds' songs (VERG. ecl. 3, 59; as at the present day: cf. AHOLM, Gesch. Sicil. 2, 306). A certain liking for dialogue long prevails in Roman literature, e.g. in the instance of the jurist Junius Brutus (§ 132, 2), and C. Curio (§ 153, 6). Its popularity appears e.g. from the inscription of Aesernia (colloquy between a hostess and guest), CIL 9, 2689.

4. On festive occasions merry performances of this kind took place even in public to the accompaniment of a tibia and with dancing. The actors were disguised, in accordance with the fondness of Southern nations for mummery, their faces being painted or masked. There was only a small step from the

farcical representation of an actual event to exhibiting a fictitious action, in which the plot was invented and set down, but the detail of the execution left to the performers. Popular performances of this kind were the Fescennine songs, the Saturae, the Mimi, and later on the Atellanae.

1. VERG. G. 2, 385 Ausonii

coloni versibus incomptis ludunt risuque

soluto oraque corticibus sumunt horrenda cavatis, etc. (TIBULL. 2, 1, 55 agricola rubenti primus inexperta duxit ab arte choros of a Greek character.) Cf. MOMMSEN, RG. 1o, 222.

minio suffusus

5. The name of the Fescenninae is derived from the Faliscan town of Fescennium in the South of Etruria, though they belong in general to central Italy. They made part of rustic merrymakings, being performed on occasions of rejoicing, the performers indulging in mutual abuse and coarse jokes etc. Though this custom was originally also practised on rustic festivals (e.g. at harvest-time, and the festivals of Tellus and Silvanus), it was gradually confined to narrower limits and restricted to weddings. When, after the downfall of the Republic, the Fescenninae were drawn into the domain of artistic poetry, they retained their scoptic character and continued to be used at weddings.

1. KZELL, Ferienschrr. 2, 121. OMÜLLER, Etrusker 22, 296. RKLOTZ, lat. Lit.Gesch. 1, 292. WCORSSEN, Origines poes. 124. ATHBROMAN, de versibus fesc., Upsala 1852. AROSSBACH, röm. Ehe (1853) 340.-FESTUS in PAUL. 85 Fescennini versus, qui canebantur in nuptiis, ex urbe Fescennina dicuntur allati, sive ideo dicti quia fascinum putabantur arcere. The immediate connection of the name with the name of the town should not be denied, witness the grammatical formation of the word and the analogy of the Atellanae. Cf. acies Fescennina VERG. Aen. 7, 695 and from the neighbourhood of Fescennium e.g. Arretium -tini, Clusium -sini, Crustumium -mini, Sutrium -trini. The derivation from fascinum (which reappears in RIBBECK, Gesch. d. röm. Dicht. 1, 9) is upset by the linguistic difficulties.

2. HOR. E. 2, 1, 139 agricolae prisci tempore festo corpus et ipsum animum piabant, floribus et vino Genium

condita post frumenta levantes Tellurem porco, Silvanum lacte (145) Fescennina per hunc inventa licentia morem versibus alternis (cf. SEN. Med. 108) opprobria rustica fudit, libertasque recurrentes accepta per annos lusit amabiliter, donec iam saevus apertam in rabiem coepit verti iocus etc. Liv. 7, 2, 7 non fescennino versu similem incompositum temere ac rudem alternis iaciebant. LUCAN. 2, 368 non soliti lusere sales nec more sabino excepit tristis convicia festa maritus. MACR. sat. 3, 14, 9 M. Cato senatorem non ignobilem Caecilium Fescenninum vocat, probably on account of

his habit of ridicularia fundere, iocos dicere (ib.) Cf. FEST. 344 v. spatiator.

3. CATULL. 61, 122 ne diu taceat (at a wedding) procax fescennina locutio. SEN. Med. 107 concesso iuvenes ludite iurgio. hinc illinc iuvenes mittite carmina. rara est in dominos iusta licentia. ib. 113 festa dicax fundat convicia fescenninus, solvat turba

iocos. SEN. contr. 7, 21, 12 inter nuptiales fescenninos (so PLIN. NH. 15, 86; cf. SERV. Aen. 7, 695 Fescennium oppidum est, ubi nuptialia inventa sunt carmina) in crucem generi nostri iocabantnr. AusON. opusc. 28 (cento nupt.) p. 145 Sch. fescenninos amat celebritas nuptialis verborumque petulantiam notus vetere instituto ludus admittit. SYMMACH. or. pro patre 13, p. 335 S. CLAUDIAN. Fescenn. 4, 29 ducant pervigiles carmina tibiae permissisque iocis turba licentior exsultet tetricis libera legibus. APOLL. SID. ep. 1, 5 in fin. (of Ricimer's wedding) cum per omnia theatra. fescenninus explicaretur. DRACONT. 6, 71. 8, 644. 10, 288.

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Talasio

4. Catullus' first epithalamium (61) is an imitation (v. 122 sqq.) of the national custom. For the Fescenninae of Annianus the Faliscan see § 353, 3. Of Claudianus we possess de nuptiis Honorii Aug. et Mariae fescennina (4 poems in different metres). On the other hand see MACR. sat. 2. 4, 21 temporibus triumviralibus Pollio, cum fescenninos (satirical poems) in eum Augustus scripsisset, ait: at ego taceo, non est enim facile in eum scribere qui potest proscribere.

5. The original metre of the Fescenninae, as far as they may have been at all metrical, was no doubt the Saturnian line. The Fescenninae never made their way to the stage. The passage in DIOMED. GL. 1. 479, 13, where Fescenninus appears to be mentioned as another name for the creticus (--) is corrupt.

6. In the Saturae the dramatic element seems to have prevailed from the beginning. Most likely they were merry performances of the country clowns of Latium, separate songs or comic stories, recited with gesticulation and dancing to the accompaniment of a tibia, more varied in their occasions and subjects than the Fescenninae. They belonged to the popular festivities, and when in the year 390/364 a public stage was erected at Rome, they were also enacted on it by wandering mountebanks. Later on, when regular dramas in the Greek fashion were established among the public entertainments, they were joined to them and thus gradually came to be looked upon as farces or after-plays (exodia), though this place was afterwards occupied by the Atellanae.

1. With regard to the saturae all is obscure and uncertain. Something may be gathered from the expression saturas agere (Liv. 7. 2, 7 impletas modis saturas descripto iam ad tibicinem cantu motuque congruenti peragebant), the adaptation to the stage and transition to the sense of exodia; see Liv. 7. 2, 11 iuventus histrionibus fabellarum actu relicto ipsa inter se more antiquo ridicula intexta versibus iactitare coepit; quae exodia postea appellata . . . sunt.

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2. Derivation of the name. DrOMED. GL. 1, 485 satira dicta sive a Satyris, quod similiter in hoc carmine ridiculae res pudendaeque dicuntur, quae velut a Satyris proferuntur et fiunt; sive satura a lance, quae referta variis multisque primitiis in sacro apud priscos dis inferebatur et a copia ac saturitate rei satura vocabatur sive a quodam genere farciminis, quod multis rebus refertum saturam dicit Varro vocitatum . . . alii autem dictam putant a lege satura, quae uno rogatu multa simul comprehendat, quod scilicet et satura carmine multa simul poemata conprehenduntur. Most probably the term passed from a ritualistic use (lanx satura) to the legislative sphere (imperium per saturam dare, aliquid in [per] saturam ferre, aedilem per