thonica aut planipedia (#λaviñedapía LYD. 1.1.), EUANTH. de com. p. 7 R.: post véav kwμwdíav (therefore after the palliata) Latinos multa fabularum genera protulisse, ut togatas, ab scaenicis (?scaenis) atque argumentis latinis; praetextas .; Atellanas .; Rhinthonicas, ab auctoris nomine; tabernarias, ab humilitate argumenti et stili; mimos, ab diuturna imitatione vilium rerum et levium personarum. Valuable notices on the various kinds (though mixed with errors) are found in DIOMEDES, GL. 1, 487-492, as also in EUANTHIUS and DONATUS de comoedia. Cf. § 405, 6.

2. After 514/240 there were legitimate dramatic performances at the ludi Romani, § 94, 2. As early as 540/214 ludi scaenici were given yearly at the ludi Romani, plebeii and Apollinares; likewise after 560/194 at the Megalesia. Theatrical performances also took place from an early date at ludi votivi (see PVBOLTENSTERN, de rebus scaenicis Rom., Greifsw. 1875). In the year 600/154, by a decree of the Senate, the demolition of a stone theatre which had been already begun was ordered, and at the same time the people were forbidden to sit during the games. More brilliant productions (ludi curatius editi Tac. A. 14, 21) after LMummius 609/145. From this time complete theatres were erected each year in the Greek fashion, with rows of raised seats, although still of wood, and so constructed that the theatre was pulled down on each occasion after being used; it was only after the year 699/55 that the first stone theatre in Rome was built by Pompey; this was followed 741/13 by the stone theatres of Cornelius Balbus and Marcellus; these three permanent theatres,-the only ones which Rome possessed-accommodated altogether about 50,000 persons.-The manager (dominus gregis), who probably as a rule sustained the chief character as well, bought the piece from the author on his own account (cf. § 110, 2, 2; also § 223, 2), concluded, at his own risk, the contract for the representation with the curatores ludorum, selected the company, costumes etc. (vestis, ornamenta=apparatus scaenicus) and rehearsed the parts under the direction of the author. The practical management of theatrical troupes was no doubt conducted in imitation of the Greek σύνοδοι τῶν περὶ τὸν Διόνυσον τεχνιτών, οἱ which we also find traces in Syracuse, Rhegium and Naples: at a later time there were Greek theatrical companies in Rome itself: AMÜLLER, griech. Bühnenaltert. Freib. 1886, 394. 410.—See in gen. RITSCHL, Parerga 227, sq. RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 647. LFRIEDLÄNDER in Marquardt's röm. Staatsverw. 3, 528. BARNOLD, das altröm. Theatergebäude, Wurzb. 1873. Cf. above § 6, 3.

13. In tragedy the Romans were throughout dependent upon the Greeks. It is true that there were points in the character, the institutions and history of the Romans which would have been favourable to the creation of an independent tragic literature; but the poetical power necessary for shaping these subjects was not possessed by them, least of all when tragedies were first presented to them. They were translations from the Greek, of rude execution in the case of Andronicus, but steadily improved and made more original by Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius and Accius. The taste of the mass for spectacles, unable as they were to derive much pleasure from the subject-matter and form of the foreign plays, was gratified by brilliant mise en scène. All these tragic writers of the Republican time possessed great

gravity in their characters, sentiments and style, though they fell occasionally into bombast or triviality, and made their verses somewhat awkwardly. The same may be assumed of the tragedies of Atilius, C. Titius, C. Julius Caesar Strabo, Varro, Q. Cicero, Cassius of Parma, and also probably of those of Santra and Asinius Pollio, though the last of them seems to have been original in his subjects. The early Imperial period, during which the attention of educated men was again turned to the ancient Roman tragic writers, produced also new plays, of course with more technical finish. Here we may mention L. Varius' Thyestes, Ovid's Medea, Pupius and also Gracchus, Turranius, Mam. Scaurus, Pomponius Secundus and, above all, the tragedies of Seneca. But these compositions were, doubtless, for the most part bookdramas, which did not pretend to popular effect, and only courted the applause of the poet's friends at recitations. Among the later tragic writers only Curiatius Maternus is of any consequence.

1. Tragicorum latin. reliquiae, rec. ORIBBECK, Lps.2 1871. Textual criticism in EBÄHRENS (JJ. 105, 621), BERGK (op. 1, 319, and against this RIBBECK, RhM. 29, 209). FGWELCKER, die griech. Tragödien (Rhein. Mus. Suppl. 2, 3), Bonn 1841, p. 1332-1484 and ORIBBECK, die rom. Tragödie d. Republ., Lpz. 1875; cf. likewise AREIFFERSCHEID JB. 1880 3, 265. It is open to question whether, as RIBBECK supposes (röm. Trag. 24, 204), ancient Roman tragedies, such as Livius' Ino and Ennius' Athamas were modernised in the first century A.D.-CHORSTMANN, de vett. tragg. rom. lingua, Münst. 1870. LBRUNEL, de tragoedia ap. Rom. circa princip. Aug. corrupta, Par. 1884.

2

2. The number of tragic poets known to us by more or less explicit mention amounts at the utmost to 36; that of their plays to 150 at most (lists in RIBBECK trag. p. 363; röm. Trag. 634); only those of Seneca have been preserved. The subjects of the Trojan cycle were especially popular. A general criticism in QUINT. 10, 1, 97.

3. Tragedy also consisted of portions of sedate and of more excited character, of dialogue and of lyric parts which were sung-diverbium (deverbium) and cantica. The dialogue was principally in iambic trimeters, admitting, however, in the Republican period, of spondees (and so also anapaests and dactyls) in all places except the last, and was only treated with more purity after the time of Augustus. The cantica show little variety in their metres, anapaests and cretics being the most frequent, besides which we have also trochaic and iambic tetrameters, and dactylic lines. They were accompanied by a tibia (Cic. or. 184. de or. 1, 254. Tusc. 1, 107. HOR. AP. 215), and habitués were skilled enough to know the piece about to be performed from the prelude of the tibicen (Cic. Acad. pr. 2, 20, cf. de or. 3, 196. DONAT. de com. p. 12, 11 R).—Regarding the splendid mounting: Cic. fam. 7, 1. HOR. E. 2, 1, 203. RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 664.-For crepidata (from crepida, кpŋπís, equivalent to cothurnus) denoting Roman tragedy with Greek subjectmatter, see § 14, 2.

4. In Cicero's time the eminent actor Aesopus (see RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 674) brought tragedies (espec. those of Pacuvius and Accius) very much into vogue:

R. L.

с

see e.g. Cic. Sest. 120, fin. 5, 63. Tusc. 1, 106. Lael. 24. Other tragoediarum actores are Rupilius (Cıc. off. 1, 114), Catienus and Fufius (Hor. S. 2, 3, 60), Apelles (SUET. Calig. 33), Glyko (PERS. 5, 9), Apollinaris (SUET. Vesp. 19).-In Cicero's time tragedies were written in three acts: see Cic. ad Q. fr. 1, 1, 46. RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 641.

=

5. A chorus in the Greek manner was impossible for the Romans for the simple reason of the Senate occupying the orchestra. Choric dancing (cf. also § 1, 4) being thus excluded, we find now and then a number of performers simultaneously on the stage, which was wider for this reason (A. MÜLLER, Bühnenaltert. 19), and singing together (catervae atque concentus, Cic. de or. 3, 196; cf. COLUMELLA 12, 2; cf. § 16, 5). In the ancient Roman tragedians a certain imitation of the Greek choric songs is not improbable, because they were mere translators; this is supported by such titles as Bacchae, Eumenides (cf. Cic. Rosc. Am. 66, Pis. 46), Hellenes, Myrmidones, Phinidae, Phoenissae, Stasiastae, Troades, as well as by numerous details. The account of Lucullus, e.g. in HOR. E. 1, 6, 40 (cf. PLUT. Lucull. 39) presupposes a chorus (§ 16, 4). Cf. POLYB. 30, 13. In Andronicus' Ino (§ 94, 5) the chorus sang hymnum Triviae (Ter. Maur. 1934 GL. 6, 383); in Naevius' Lycurgus we find a chorus of bacchanals, in Ennius' Iphigenia (GELL. 19, 10, 12) and Medea (fr. 14-EUR. Med. 1251) there is a chorus; in Pacuvius is a stasimum (MAR. VICT. GL. 6, 77), and in Antiopa, Chryses, Niptra there are also parts resembling a chorus. A chorus Proserpinae is mentioned by Varro LL. 6, 94. Traces of choruses are more scarce in Accius, though evident in the Bacchae and Philocteta. Pomponius Secundus (§ 284, 7) and Seneca would not, it may be supposed, have composed choric songs (to mark the acts) without the example of the ancient poets, and Horace (AP. 193) would not have discussed so fully the arrangement of the Greek chorus, if it had not existed in the Roman drama. Cf. concerning a dexter actor MANIL. astr. 5, 485 aequabit choros gestu. PHAEDR. 5, 7, 25 tunc chorus ignotum modo reducto canticum insonuit, cuius haec fuit sententia: Laetare, incolumis Roma, salvo Principe. GRYSAR, d. Canticum u. d. Chor in der röm. Trag., Wien 1855-SBer. d. Wien. Ak. 15, 365. OJAHN, Herm. 2, 227. RIBBECK, röm. Trag. 637.

6. In the Imperial period the tragic representations resolved themselves into their component parts, and degenerated into soli by virtuosi (singers and pantomimists). For the pantomimi see above § 8, 13. Just as these reproduced tragic scenes by gesticulation, so the singers executed tragic arias in a costume corresponding to their rôle. Regarding Nero's passion for such performances § 286, 9. Cf. LFriedländer, Sittengesch. 25, 404. GBOISSIER, de la signification des mots cantare et saltare tragoediam, Rev. archéolog. N.S. 4 (1861), 333.

14. The (fabula) praetexta is the Roman tragedy of a national character; in the absence of indigenous heroic legends, historic subjects were adopted and, as a rule, by poets who also wrote tragedies (on Greek subjects and after Greek originals). Thus Naevius (Clastidium, Romulus), Ennius (Ambracia, Sabinae), Pacuvius (Paullus), Accius (Aeneadae s. Decius, Brutus), and Balbus Iter ad Lentulum; as dramas for reading Pomponius Secundus composed an Aeneas, Persius a play of which the subject is unknown, Curiatius Maternus a Domitius and a Cato, an unknown poet a Marcellus (?) The tragedy of Octavia claims to be

a praetexta. In form and character these plays were made after tragic models, they were even more elaborately furnished, as the themes were of national interest, and perhaps it was only their style which, in agreement with the subjects, was less sublime.

1. The form praetexta is used by ASINIUS POLLIO (in Cic. fam. 10, 32, 3. 5). HORACE (AP. 288), PROBUS (vita Persii, p. 237 Jahn), FESTUS (223; cf. 352); the designation praetextata prevails in the later grammarians.

2. DIOMEDES GL. 1, 489 prima species est togatarum (national dramas) quae praetextatae dicuntur, in quibus imperatorum negotia agebantur et publica et reges romani vel duces inducuntur, personarum dignitate et sublimitate tragoediis similes. praetextatae autem dicuntur quia fere regum vel magistratuum qui praetexta utuntur in eiusmodi fabulis acta comprehenduntur. (Cf. praetextati in magistratibus, in sacerdotiis, Liv. 34, 7. Also NoN. 541.) DIOMED. 1.1. 490 togata praetextata a in praetextata autem

tragoedia differt quod in tragoedia heroes inducuntur, .. Brutus vel Decius, item Marcellus (§ 94, 6) (vel Africanus et his similia, is added by RHABANUS MAURUS, Opera 1, 47 ed. Colon. 1627: is this credible?? See RIBBECK, com.2 p. CXVIII). MANIL. 5, 483 (dexter actor) magnos heroas aget civisque togatos. DONAT. de com. p. 9 R. tragoedia, si latina argumentatio sit, praetexta dicitur. EUANTH. de com. p. 7 R. praetextatas, a dignitate personarum tragicarum ex latina historia. LYDUS de mag. 1, 40 (tragedy) téμvetai els êpywidáтav (§ 13, 3. DONAT. Ter. Ad. prol. 7) καὶ πραιτεξτάταν· ὧν ἡ μὲν κρηπιδάτα ἑλληνικὰς ἔχει ὑποθέσεις, ἡ dè πpaiTežTáta þwμaïkás. TACITUS dial. 2, inaccurately, designates Curiatius Maternus' Cato as tragoedia (cf. PLAUT. Amphitr. prol. 41. 93. Capt. 62). SEN. ep. 1, 8, 8 means praetextae in speaking of togatae; see § 17, 1. Performance of the praetextae perhaps at ludi triumphales (GRÖPER). We may fairly conclude that separate portions of Greek tragedies were utilised, just as in the togatae (below, § 17) use was made of individual details in the new Attic comedy. Traces of the utilising of praetextae in Livy? e.g. in the siege of Veii 5, 21 (cf. in the same chapter § 8 haec ad ostentationem scaenae gaudentis miraculis aptiora, see RIBBECK, RhM. 36, 321). Perhaps we may also refer to a praetexta the beautiful Pompeian wall-painting (copied in the Mus. Borbon. 1, 34. VISCONTI, iconogr. rom. 3, 56), which among all those found there stands alone as historical, and represents the dying Sophoniba attended by Scipio and Masinissa; see OJAHN, der Tod der Sophoniba, Bonn 1859. AREIFFERSCHEID, JB. 1880 3, 265.-Collection of the remains of the praetextae in RIBBECK, trag.a 277. Cf. FGWELCKER, die griech. Trag. (1841) 1344. 1388. 1402.

15. The earliest of the different kinds of comedy (cf. § 12) is the palliata, on Greek subjects and imitated from Greek originals, especially the New Attic Comedy. Its period extends over the whole 6th century U.c. To this belong Andronicus, Naevius, Plautus, Ennius, Trabea, Atilius, Licinius Imbrex, Juventius, Statius Caecilius, Luscius Lanuvinus, Terence, Plautius, Turpilius: a series of names on the one hand representing a scale of increasing refinement in style, but on the other hand also of decreasing originality with regard to the treatment of the Greek originals. The first composers of palliatae endeavoured to assimilate their pieces to the popular taste by various additions of a local or temporal character, or by making them more coarse;

the later ones, Terence e.g., despised attractions of this kind, but in so doing lost the popular sympathies, which were turned to the more amusing style of the togatae, Atellanae and mimi. The consequence was that the production of new palliatae ceased, and if plays of this class were wanted, the stage had to fall back upon older literature. The plays of Plautus and Terence subsisted on the stage after the establishment of the Empire (cf. § 99. 109). The original productions during this latter period, e.g. by Vergilius Romanus and M. Pomponius Bassulus, were confined to small circles and remained without effect.

1. DIOMED. GL. 1, 489 graecas fabulas ab habitu palliatas Varro ait nominari. PLAUT. Curc. 2, 3, 9 isti Graeci palliati etc. Pallium graecanicum (SUET. Dom. 4)= iμátiov éXλnvikóv (LUCIAN. merc. cond. 25). SEN. controv. 9, 26, 13 cum latine declamaverunt, toga posita, sumpto pallio, graece declamabant. The palliata was also briefly styled comoedia and the poets belonging to it comici (RITSCHL, Parerga 189). Hence DIOMED. GL. 1, 490 togata tabernaria a comoedia differt, quod in comoedia graeci ritus inducuntur personaeque graecae in illa vero latinae Terentius et Caecilius comoedias scripserunt. In this way QUINT. 11, 3, 178 mentions Demetrius and Stratokles as maximos actores comoediarum of his time, the following description and ib. 182 showing that palliatae are understood. So also FRONTO ep. p. 54 and 211 Nab. (comoedias, Atellanas). 106 (sententias comes ex comoedis) etc.

2. The Old Attic Comedy was too much connected with its own period to be fit for imitation by another nation and in a different period (on Vergilius Romanus, the imitator of Old Attic Comedy, see § 332, 7). On the other hand, the New Comedy, the nearest in time, in the 6th century u.c. held the stage, and was by its typical delineation of character and general human bearing especially fitted to be transplanted to foreign soil. In it we notice especially Menander, next to him Diphilos and Philemon. Others are mentioned by GELL. 2, 23, 1 comoedias lectitamus nostrorum poetarum sumptas ac versas de Graecis, Menandro aut Posidippo aut Apollodoro aut Alexide et quibusdam item aliis comicis. BUGGE, de causis neglectae ap. Rom. comoediae Graecorum veteris et mediae, Christiania 1823.

3. On the dying out of the pall. (?) in the Imperial period, see M. AUREL. comm. 11, 6 ἡ νέα κωμῳδία πρὸς τί ποτε παρείληπται, ἢ κατ' ὀλίγον ἐπὶ τὴν ἐκ μιμήσεως φιλοτεχνίαν iTeрpún. A mere exercise of the pen was the experiment of Surdinus, ingeniosus adulescens (in the Augustan period, § 268, 6), a quo graecae fabulae eleganter in sermonem latinum conversae sunt (SEN. Suas. 7, 12). Comoedias audio in PLIN. ep. 5, 3, 2 should be understood of recitation (as in the case of Vergilius Romanus). On the traces of the acting of comedies in late Imperial times, see LFRIEDLänder, Sittengesch. Roms 25, 566.

4. A curious classification of the poets of palliatae (Caecilius Statius, Plautus, Naevius, Licinius, Atilius, Terentius, Turpilius, Trabea, Luscius, Ennius) by Volcacius Sedigitus, in GELL. 15, 24, see § 147, 3.

5. The fragments of the written palliatae

(except Plautus and Terence) fragm., Lps.2 1873. For textual

especially in ORIBBECK, Comicorum rom. criticism cf. TнBERGK Op. 1, 379. HAKOCH JJ. 109, 137. FBÜCHELER RhM. 29, 195. KDZIATZKO ib. 31, 376. ASPENGEL, die lat. Komödie (address), München 1878 (Bayr. Akad.).