dicated of the rose is, being red; the personal inflection by Inasmuch as the personal terminations of a verb have no existence apart from the verb itself, it is usual (and convenient) in grammar to treat the copula as a part of the predicate. Thus in the sentence, "Time flies," time is called the subject, and flies the predicate. In the sentence, "The rose is red," rose is called the subject, and is red the predicate. This mode of speaking is slightly different from the use of the word predicate in Logic; but it must be understood that, henceforth, in using the word predicate, we mean the predicate and copula combined. * * All abstract sciences labour under the disadvantage of having to employ terms in a rather harsh and arbitrary manner; as in Algebra, addition may be (arithmetically speaking) a subtraction, and multiplication may be, for example, taking two-thirds of a quantity. So, in Logic, the terms predicate and copula involve a little difficulty. In the proposition, "The earth is a globe," it would be said that the predicate (praedicatum, or thing asserted) is a globe; that is, what we assert of the earth is, a globe. This mode of speaking requires a technical meaning to be put upon it before it has any sense. More strictly in accordance with the meaning of the language, it should be said that what we assert about the earth is, its being a globe. The grammatical use of the word predicate, as it is explained in the text, is in strict accordance with its real meaning. Again, with regard to the copula, although for logical purposes it is necessary to throw propositions into a form in which each term is substantive in its nature, and the two terms are connected by some finite form of the verb be, it is demonstrably wrong to say that the copula of every proposition is a part of the verb be (is, are, was, &c.), for "Time flies" is a perfect proposition in its present form, and yet involves no part of the verb be either expressed or understood. Surely Tempus fugil is a perfect sentence as it stands. How can the copula in a sentence be something which forms no part of it, and which, if introduced, would make a sentence which no Roman would ever have uttered? The business of grammar is to analyse the forms and combinations which the language actually gives us, not other barbarous expressions which are asserted to be their equivalents. Fancy a Roman being told that when he said tempus fugit, what he really thought was tempus est fugiens! It is true that the proposition will assume a different shape when reduced to its technical logical form but if that form involves any element that does not exist in the original proposition, it is plain that it is not its exact equivalent. Again, the so-called copula in Logic is really more than a copula or link by which two ideas are connected. If we have a finite form of the verb be (and without a finite form there can be no predication), we may ignore, but we cannot eliminate, either the root-meaning of the verb, or the idea of time. Is and are involve the notion of present time as essentially as was and were that of past time. This little difficulty, however, is quietly swallowed by logicians, who tell us that the copula, as such, has no relation to time. The fact is, that technical logic ought to have some conventional sign for the copula, something like in mathematics, and not the verb be at all. Now, if we put together the two facts that there may be a perfect proposition without the verb be, and that when that verb is used there is no proposi tion unless the verb be is in a finite form, the inference is plain that the real copula consists of those inflections by which a verb assumes a finite form. This justifies the mode in which the matter is stated in the text, and which, while it differs Bomewhat from what is generally set down in grammars, will be found to introduce a little more harmony between grammatical theory and grammatical practice 348 In grammar, the terms subject and predicate are used in a more restricted sense than in Logic. In Logic, the subject of a proposition is the entire description of that which is spoken of: the predicate is all that is employed to represent the idea which is connected with the subject. Thus, in "This boy's father gave him a book," the subject is "this boy's father;" the predicate is " gave him a book." But in grammar, the single noun father is called the subject, and gave the predicate, the words connected with father and gave being treated enlargements of the subject and predicate. 349 Whenever we speak of anything, we make it a separate object of thought. A word that can stand for anything which we make a separate object of thought is called a substantive. 350 It follows, therefore, that the subject of a sentence must be a substantive, or what is equivalent to a substantive. 351 An adjective is not the name of anything. It does not stand for a separate object of thought. An adjective, therefore, can never be the subject of a sentence. 352 Substantives may be arranged in the following classes :1. Nouns. 2. The Substantive Pronouns (see § 130).. 3. The Infinitive Mood (see § 187). 4. Gerunds, or Verbal Nouns (see § 197). 5. Any word which is itself made the subject of discourse, every word being a name for itself. 6. A phrase or quotation; a phrase being, to all intents and purposes, a name for itself. 7. A Substantive Clause, that is, a clause which, in its relation to the rest of the sentence, has the force of a single substantive (§ 402). 353 The only part of speech by means of which we can make an assertion is the verb (see § 175). The essential part of every affirmation respecting an object of thought is a finite verb (i.e., a verb in some one of its personal forms, not the infinitive mood or participle). 354 The subject and the verb are the cardinal points of every sentence. All other words in a sentence are attached directly or indirectly to one or other of these two. There cannot be a complete sentence without a subject and a verb (§ 344), and a complete sentence may be formed containing nothing but a subject and a verb. 355 When a sentence contains only one subject and one finite verb, it is said to be a simple sentence. When a sentence contains not only a principal subject and its verb, but also other dependent or subordinate clauses which have subjects and verbs of their own, the sentence is said to be complex. The subject of a complex sentence may be an entire clause. When a sentence consists of two or more principal and independent sentences connected by co-ordinative conjunctions, it is said to be compound. 356 The subject of a sentence stands for some object of thought: the predicate denotes some fact or idea which we connect with that object, and the union between the two is effected by the copula. But this union may be viewed in more ways than one. 1. When it is our intention to declare that the connexion which is indicated between the subject of discourse and the idea denoted by the predicate does exist, the sentence is affirmative;* as, Thomas left the room.' 2. When it is our wish to know whether the connexion referred to subsists, the sentence is interrogative; as, "Did Thomas leave the room?" [This explains how interrogative pronouns came to be used relatively. When we say, "Who did that?" it is equivalent to saying, "Name to me the person who did that." Who did that is in each case a clause describing a person; but when used relatively, it is used with the intention of declaring that the description does apply to some person already named; when used interrogatively, it implies a wish to know the person to whom the description applies.] 3. When we express our will that the connexion between the object of thought described by the subject, and that which is expressed by the predicate, should subsist, the sentence that results is called an imperative sentence; as, 66 Thomas, leave the room.' 4. When we express a wish that the connexion may subsist, the sentence that results is called an optative sentence; as, May you speedily recover." 66 6 66 In some imperative sentences the will is so weakened as to become simply a wish; as, Defend us, O Lord." 'Sing, heavenly muse. The grammatical force of the sentence, however, is not altered by this. 357 In all the above-named kinds of sentences, the grammatical connexion between the subject and the verb is the same. It is sufficient, therefore, to take one as a type of all. The affirmative sentence is the most convenient for this purpose. A negative sentence is only a particular variety of affirmative sentence. If we deny that John is here by saying, "John is not here," we affirm that John is not here. 358. RELATION OF WORDS TO ONE ANOTHER. The starting point in a sentence is the subject. To this the other words of the sentence are attached directly or indirectly. The modes in which the various words and groups of words in a sentence are related to each other may be classed as follows:-1. The Predicative Relation. 2. The Attributive Relation. 3. The Objective Relation. 4. The Adverbial Relation. 359 1. The Predicative Relation is that in which the predicate of a sentence stands to its subject.' The Predicative relation to the subject may be sustained by a verb, or by a verb of incomplete predication and its complement (see § 392). In the sentence, "The boy ran away," the verb ran is in the predicative relation to the subject boy. In the sentence, "The ball is round," not only the verb is, but the adjective round, which belongs to the predicate, is said to be in the predicative relation to the subject ball. 360 2. The Attributive Relation. When we speak of anything, and connect with it the idea of some attribute that it possesses, or some circumstance respecting it, assuming the connexion, but not asserting it, the word or phrase by means of which the attribute is indicated, is said to stand in the attributive relation to the word which denotes the thing spoken of. Thus, in "Wise men sometimes act foolishly," the adjective wise stands in the attributive relation to the noun men. The attribute which it denotes is assumed to belong to the men, but it is not asserted of them. If we say, "The men are wise," then wise is in the predicative relation to men; the attribute is asserted of them. If we say, "Socrates was wise," wise is in the predicative relation to Socrates. If we say, "Socrates was a wise man," then wise stands in the attributive relation to the word man, and wise man stands in the predicative relation to Socrates. 361 As an attribute can only belong to a thing, it is only to substantives that words can stand in the attributive relation. Words, or combinations of words, which stand in this attributive relation to a substantive, may be called attributive adjuncts. All grammatical relations are, of course, reciprocal. In the sentence, "The boy ran away," while ran is in the predicative relation to bou, boy is in its turn in the subjective relation to ran. But as these are only two different modes of view. ing the same grammatical combination, a separate classification is unnecessary. 362 Attributive adjuncts may be of the following kinds :1. An adjective or participle, either used simply or accompanied by adjuncts of its own; as, "A large apple, many men, "the soldier, covered with wounds, still kept his ground." 862* 66 "John 2. A noun in apposition to the substantive; as, Smith, the baker, said so," or a substantive clause in apposition to some substantive, as, the report that he was killed is untrue," where the clause that he was killed is in apposition to report; "He other means doth make, how he may work unto her further smart," where the clause how he smart is in apposition to means. 3. A substantive in the possessive case; as, "My father's house;" "My mother;" "John's book;" "The man whose house was burnt down," &c. 66 "The The 4. A substantive preceded by a preposition; as, inventor of this machine;" The uncle of that boy;' trees in the garden;" "A horse for riding;" "A mistake to be avoided;" "A wish to succeed;" "The desire to be praised;" "Water to drink," "A time to weep;" ." "A man on horseback." [N.B. In its grammatical relations the infinitive mood is a substantive, The infinitive mood in the preceding sentence is be avoided, succeed, &c.] 5. An adjective clause. [See § 407.] Neverthe"The Strictly speaking, adverbs cannot be attached to nouns. less we find such phrases as, "The house here belongs to me." church there is a fine one.' These construetions are in fact elliptical, a word or phrase denoting being is to be supplied: "The house (being, or which is) here," &c. (just as, in Greek, oi vūv ävbpañol is oi võv övtes ἔνθρωποι). As the mention of a thing presupposes its being, the omission of that which indicates this idea is very easy. Adverbs used in this way may be said to be in the quasi-attributive relation to the noun. This use of the adverb is closely related to many instances of the use of a preposition, followed by a noun, to form an attributive adjunct. Thus, "The tree here," and "The tree in this place," are phrases which are equivalent. But when a noun is used attributively (see 362, 2) it may, like any other attributive word, be qualified by an adverb; as, "This man, once the possessor of a large fortune." 863 Adjectives must always be either in the attributive, or in the predicative relation to some substantive expressed or understood. Hence the rule of syntax, that "An adjective must always qualify (or agree with) some substantive expressed or understood." 364 When a word (not being a substantive in the possessive case) is in the attributive relation to a substantive, it must agree with it in number, gender, and case, if it is capable |